UC-NRLF 


12 


O 


INCREASING 


ECONOMIES 


A  Dollar  Saved  in  Operating  Expense 
is  One  Hundred  Cents  in  Net  Earnings 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


PRINTED    BT 

FEDERAL  PRINTING  COMPANY, 
NBW    YORK 


INCREASING 

CAR  OPERATION 

ECONOMIES 


BY 

C.  C.  CHAPPELLE 

CONSULTING  ENGINEER  AND  VICE-PRESIDENT 
RAILWAY  IMPROVEMENT  COMPANY 


[LIMITED  EDITION] 


1916 

RAILWAY  IMPROVEMENT  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK 


0 


Foreword 

THIS  volume  has  been  prepared  to  assist  those  interested  in 
the  problem  of  securing  better  economies  in  the  practical 
operation  of  electric  railway  cars. 

Financiers,  executives,  men  actually  directing  opera- 
tions, and  everyone  interested  in  increasing  the  economies  and  net 
earnings  of  electric  railways  will  find  presented  information  and 
practical  suggestions  worthy  of  the  most  careful  consideration. 

The  principles  controlling  and  determining  the  possible  econo- 
mies and  limitations  for  standards  of  service  are  discussed;  as,  also,  the 
methods  commercially  available  for  securing  the  obtainable  results  in 
practice.  Our  impelling  motive  is  the  belief  that  a  thorough  under- 
standing of  such  principles  will  be  the  deciding  basis  for  a  decision 
as  to  the  effective  method  for  securing  the  available  results. 

This  brings  us  to  the  point  that  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  is 
not  the  embodiment  of  some  new  and  wonderful  principle  in  car 
operation,  but  an  instrument  that  helps  the  motorman  to  attain  in 
practice  the  motor  efficiencies  that  the  designer  considered  in  the 
design  of  the  equipment,  as  obtainable  for  the  stated  operating 
conditions. 

Since  the  mechanical  accuracy  of  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder 
is  not  in  dispute,  it  remains  to  prove  that  the  thing  that  the  Re- 
corder measures — coasting — is  the  correct  measure  of  actual  efficiency 
in  the  use  of  electrical  energy.  This  proof  is  furnished  conclusively 
in  the  study  by  Mr.  Chappelle,  herewith. 

First  of  all,  let  it  be  clearly  understood  that  Mr.  Chappelle  does 
not  stand  alone  in  stating  that  coasting  is  the  correct  measure  of 
efficiency.  On  the  contrary,  every  motor  designer  tacitly  recognizes 
the  truth  of  this  statement  by  including  a  coasting  period  in  deter- 
mining the  adaptability  of  the  equipment  for  the  stated  operating 
conditions,  based  on  the  motor  characteristic  performance  curves. 

Mr.  Chappelle,  however,  has  gone  further  by  pointing  out  in  de- 
tail just  what  the  correct  utilization  of  coasting  means  in  every-day 
practice.  To  this  end  he  has  made  clear  the  fact  that  for  any  given 


336124 


set  of  operating  conditions  the  resulting  coasting  shows  the  most 
efficient  combination  for  the  proper  rate  of  acceleration,  the  proper 
rate  of  braking,  the  duration  of  stop,  etc. 

As  these  are  all  time-element  factors,  a  time-measuring  device, 
the  Rico"  Coasting  Recorder  or  the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder,  is  the 
logical  instrument  for  checking  them. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  feature  of  Mr.  Chappelle's  study  (in 
Chapter  Two)  is  the  relation  which  it  establishes  between  power 
and  platform  costs,  schedule  speeds,  and  coasting,  to  the  number 
of  stops  of  traffic  conditions.  This  relation  shows  when  it  is  more 
profitable  to  save  wages  by  decreasing  coasting  time  than  to  save 
power  and  brake  shoes  by  increasing  coasting  time. 

While  Mr.  Chappelle's  study  (Chapter  Two)  demonstrates  that 
coasting  is  the  correct  measure  of  efficiency,  Chapter  One  discusses 
the  types  of  devices,  available  commercially,  for  checking  the  effi- 
ciencies of  power  and  other  factors  entering  into  car  operation  in 
practice,  and  more  particularly  the  new  Rico  Coasting  and  Service 
Recorder  (commercially  abbreviated  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder),  which 
gives  the  number  of  stops,  the  time  consumed  for  stops,  the  actual 
running  time  in  which  the  schedule  time  is  made,  in  addition  to  the 
coasting  time  and  identification  features  of  the  original  Rico 
Coasting  Recorder.  The  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  card  form  record 
may  also  be  used  to  compare  the  motorman's  platform  time  with 
his  pay-roll  time  which  may  be  recorded  on  the  same  card  record. 

It  would  be  hard  to  overestimate  the  wonderful  possibilities  of 
the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  in  the  hands  of  the  practical  railway  oper- 
ator. At  last  he  has  at  his  command  an  automatic  analyst  which 
can  tell  him,  not  once  a  year,  once  a  month,  once  a  week  or  once  a 
day  how  the  most  important  elements  of  operating  cost  are  being 
affected,  but  a  device  that  reveals  what  is  going  on  from  minute  to 
minute! 

Following  the  conclusion  of  Chapter  Two  are  letters  from  a  promi- 
nent engineer  of  each  of  the  great  electrical  manufacturers,  also,  from 
Mr.  H.  St.  Clair  Putnam,  one  of  the  recognized  authorities  on  railway 
engineering  and  operating  practice,  reprinted  by  permission,  from 
the  Electric  Railway  Journal. 


Mr.  W.  B.  Potter,  Engineer,  Railway  and  Traction  Department, 
General  Electric  Company,  says: 

"I  quite  agree  with  his  (Mr.  Chappelle's)  argument  in  favor 
of  the  maximum  percentage  of  coasting  practicable  as  an  effective 
method  of  minimizing  the  power  required  for  a  given  run,  and 
that  a  record  of  the  percentage  coasting  is  a  desirable  and  effec- 
tive means  of  determining  the  relative  operating  efficiency  of 
different  motormen." 

Mr.  Potter  also  cautions  against  attempting  to  secure  the  lowest 
power  possible  through  using  rates  of  acceleration  and  braking  that 
would  be  hard  on  the  passengers  and  on  the  equipment.  With  this 
caution  we  are  in  full  agreement,  but  we  would  add  that  the  Rico 
Coasting  Recorder  or  the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  is  the  only  device 
that  directly  reveals  excessive  rates  of  acceleration  and  braking.  An 
energy  recording  device,  obviously,  cannot  show  that  the  desired  rates 
of  acceleration  and  braking  (with  corresponding  coasting  percent- 
ages) have  been  unduly  exceeded. 

Mr.  F.  E.  Wynne,  Engineer,  Railway  Section,  General  Engineer- 
ing Division,  Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufacturing  Company, 

states: 

"Mr.  Chappelle's  discussion  of  these  principles  brings  out  a 
point  which  is  frequently  overlooked  in  practical  operation; 
namely,  that  under  a  given  set  of  conditions,  the  power  input 
to  the  car  is  determined  by  what  he  designates  as  'time-element 
factors.' ' 

Mr.  Wynne  also  believes  that: 

"A  knowledge  of  the  frequency  and  duration  of  stops  is  also 
necessary  in  order  to  satisfactorily  analyze  a  service  and  deter- 
mine from  the  analysis  what  schedules  are  most  economical." 

It  is  our  pleasure  to  add  that  the  new  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder 
meets  these  various  requirements. 

Mr.  Putnam  makes  several  timely  comments,  among  others, 
pointing  out  that  the  sub-section,  "Series  Operation,"  in  his  1910 
A.  I.  E.  E.  paper,  had  reference  to  "Pausing  on  the  series  position  of  the 
controller/'  and  not  to  the  operation  of  running  on  the  series  position 
of  the  controller,  as  some  have  inferred.  Mr.  Putnam  also  points 
out  that  both  operations  should  be  avoided  for  general  efficiency,  as 
equipment  is  selected  for  normal  operation  in  multiple,  series  opera- 
tion being  a  special  contingency  for  certain  features  encountered  in 
practical  operation. 


We  can  think  of  no  stronger  endorsement  of  the  need  for  a  device 
that  measures  and  records  the  efficiency  of  the  motormen  than  the 
article  by  Mr.  J.  F.  Layng  entitled,  "Relation  Between  Car  Oper- 
ation and  Energy  Consumption."  In  this  article,  which  we  reprint 
(Chapter  Three)  through  the  courtesy  of  the  General  Electric  Review, 
Mr.  Layng  says : 

"With  the  same  car  over  the  same  route,  with  the  same  number 
and  length  of  stops,  the  power  consumption  will  vary  more  than 
30  per  cent  when  operated  by  different  motormen." 

Mr.  Layng  calls  attention  to  the  desirability  for  keeping  records 
of  the  motorman's  operations,  as  is  done  in  the  matter  of  other  ex- 
penditures, and  states: 

"By  keeping  these  records  and  following  them  up  properly, 
savings  in  power  of  20  to  25  per  cent  can  reasonably  be  expected." 

It  is  the  function  of  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  and  the  Rico 
C  &  S  Recorder  to  bring  the  energy  consumption  of  the  motorman 
to  the  efficient  minimum — and  to  keep  it  at  such  minimum. 

We  have  (Chapter  Four)  reproduced,  by  permission,  portions  of 
Mr.  F.  E.  Wynne's  paper  (read  before  Baltimore  Section  A.  I.  E.  E.) 
entitled,  "Economies  in  Railway  Operation,"  without  which  a  con- 
sideration of  the  subject  of  Efficiency  would  be  incomplete. 

In  Chapter  Five,  Mr.  Chappelle  discusses  "Car  Operation  Effici- 
ency— With  Special  Reference  to  Energy-Input  Method  of  Deter- 
mining Motormen's  Efficiency."  To  those  who  may  prefer  the 
meter  method  for  checking  efficiency,  Chapter  Five  will  be  interesting 
reading. 

To  conclude:  All  authorities  emphasize  that  most  efficient 
management  is  impossible  without  a  constant  analysis  of  the  oper- 
ating results  in  connection  with  traffic  conditions.  Such  analysis 
is  effectively  obtainable  only  with  the  Coasting  Recorder  equip- 
ments developed  by  this  company  and  now  in  successful  use  under 
the  widest  conceivable  range  in  electric  railway  operation. 

RAILWAY  IMPROVEMENT  COMPANY. 
NEW  YORK,  April,  1916. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

The  Commercial  Application  of  Fundamental 
Principles  of  Car  Operation  Efficiency  9 

Time  Element  Factors  Control  Efficiency  11 

Coasting  an  Essential  Factor  in  Economy  12 

Correct  Method  Efficiency  Checking  System  12 

Rico  Coasting  Recorder  12 

Rico  Coasting  and  Service  Recorder  (Rico  C  &  S  Recorder)  18 

Automatic  Analyst  of  Railway  Operation  19 

Skip-Stop  and  Service  Standards  20 

Power  Measurement  Not  an  Effective  Efficiency  Check  20 

Results  Desired — How  Obtainable  21 

Results  from  Practical  Operation  22 

Co-Operative  Engineering  Service  23 

Advisory  Bulletin  to  Motormen  24 

Monetary  Value  of  Obtainable  Results  26 

Highest  Net  Return  Yield  on  Investment  26 

Deferred  Payments  Purchase  Plan  26 

Fundamental  Principles  of  Car  Operation  Efficiency     29 

Factors  Affecting  Energy  Input  31 
Relation  of  Energy  Input  to  Coasting  Time  33 
Relation  of  Schedule  Speed  to  Power  and  Platform  Expense  33 
Coasting  as  a  Necessary  Factor  in  Economy  35 
Energy  Input  a  Misleading  Measure  of  Efficiency  35 
Coasting  the  Correct  Relative  Measure  of  Actual  Efficiency  37 
Economic  Advantages  of  the  Skip-Stop  Plan  39 
Reduction  in  Demand  on  Generating  Station  and  Distribu- 
tion System  40 
Summary  and  Conclusions  40 

Comments  on  Car  Operation  Efficiency  41 

By  W.  B.  POTTER,  Engineer,  Electric  Railway  Department, 

General  Electric  Company  43 

By  F.  E.  WYNNE,  Engineer,  Railway  Section,  General 

Engineering  Division,  Westinghouse  E.  &  M.  Company  44 

By  H.  S.  PUTNAM,  L.  B.  Stillwell,  Consulting  Engineers  46 
I  Index  continued  on  next  page  ] 


INDEX  {Continued} 


PAGE 


Relation  Between  Car  Operation   and  Power 
Consumption  51 

By  J.  F.  LAYNG,  Railway  and  Traction  Engineering 
Department,  General  Electric  Co.  51 

Economies  in  Railway  Operation  57 

By  F.  E.  WYNNE,  Engineer,  Railway  Section, 
General  Engineering  Division, 
Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufacturing  Co.  57 

Reduction  in  Weight  58 

Proper  Gearing  and  Armature  Speed  58 

Correct  Operation  61 

Field  Control  63 

Results  of  Tests  66 

Car  Operation  Efficiency — with  Special  Reference  to 

Energy-Input — Method  of  Determining 

Motormen's  Efficiency  69 

The  Efficiency  Problem  71 

Practical  Principles  and  Law  of  Averages  71 

Motormen's  Operations  by  Diagrams  74 

Practical  Limitations  Control  75 

Coasting  Correct  and  Simple  Check  75 

Operation  Results  Confirm  Principles  76 

Finale  78 


Chapter  One 


The  Commercial  Application  of  Fundamental  Principles 

of  Car  Operation  Efficiency 


Chapter  One 

The  Commercial  Application  of  Fundamental 
Principles  of  Car  Operation  Efficiency 

BY  C.  C.CHAPPELLE 

Consulting  Engineer  and  Vice-President 
Railway  Improvement  Company 

EVERY  electric  railway  company  is  con-      established  from  such  analysis  of  the  funda- 
fronted  with  the  necessity  of  increased      mental  principles,  as  follows: 
economies  in   operation.    The  competi-         [  I  ]  The  power  input  required  to  operate  a 
tion  of  other  means  of  transportation  (particu-      given  car  and  its  equipment  of  given  gear 
larly  the  pleasure  automobile)  tends  to  curtail      ratio,  at  a  given  average  schedule  speed,  wit 
the  natural  growth  of  gross  earnings.  a  given  average  number  of  stops  per  rml< 

The  constant  upward   trend  of  labor  and      a  given  average  trolley  voltage 
material   costs    tend    in  connection  with  the      solely  by  the  following  factors: 
almost  universal  fixed  rate  of  fare  to  reduce  ,  of  acceleration    i.e    the  rate  of  ace 

the  duration  of  braking,  i.e.,  the  rate  ot  ! 


net 


The   inTeTtaranenTIntl0present   equipment    is  tion  approaches  for  genera,  average  condition, 

JaVsuchthat  it  is  ^practicable  to  write  app—  ,£»£  ^^  rf  (I)  „. 
off  the  investment  in  existing  equipment,  ad-  11  1   lne  Vising  the  time-element 

vantageously,  from  the  obtainable  econom.es  mammg  ^unchanged  ^  *n^  ^  ^^ 

by  means  of  new  equipment.  of  stoos  on  any  selected  basis),  the  maximum 

Therefore,  it  is  apparent  that  the  logical  and          rtop.  on  any  ^  ^.^  wj  (h  po 

effective  method  for  increasing  net  savings  is       u™b"  °        Pwi?h  resulting  maximum  power 

by  reduction    in  operating  expenses  through  «d  mMimum  attained  speed   The  power 
increased  efficiency  in  the  use  of  either  V*    ^  maximum  attained  speed  both  . 

new  equipment.  crease  and  the  coasting  time  increases,  a: 

Time  Element  Factors  numb;r  of  stops  per  mile  decreases 

Control  Efficiency  portant  fact  is  ^«*f  jJ^TS! 

The  fundamental  principles  involved  in  the       VP^  of  input.    The  ratio  of 


but  as  many  readers  may  be  too  occupied  or         me  o 

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[12]  INCREASING   CAR   OPERATION    ECONOMIES 

element  factors,  acceleration,  braking  and  du-  costs  for  power  and  platform  expense.     Such 

ration  of  stop.  economical  schedule  speed  has  a  corresponding 

[  III  ]  The    other   given    conditions    of   (I)  resultant   percent   coasting.     If  the   schedule 

remaining  unchanged   (utilizing  the  time-ele-  speed  approaches  the  economic  schedule  speed 

ment  factors  of  acceleration,  braking  and  du-  for  the  traffic  conditions,  the   corresponding 

ration   of  stops  on   any   selected   basis),   the  resultant  percent  coasting  shows  little  varia- 

maximum  schedule  speed  is  obtained  with  no  tion    over    the    ranges    of   traffic    conditions 

coasting  time,  and  with  maximum  power  input  usually  encountered  in  practical  operation, 
resulting.     The  power  input  decreases  and  the 

coasting  time  increases  as  the  schedule  speed  Correct  Method  Efficiency 
decreases.     Ine  increase  in  percent  coasting 

is  in   proportion  to  the  decrease   percent  of  Checking  system 

power    input ;    the    ratio    of   this    proportion  The  fundamental  principles  of  car  operation 

approaching  approximately  the  same  one  to  efficiency,  hereinbefore  analyzed  and  discussed, 

one  ratio  as  in  (I)  and  (II).  establish  that  the  measurement  of  the  coasting 

[  IV  ]  As  the  maximum  attainable  speed  is  time   and   the   determination   of  the   percent 

approached,  for  given  conditions,  the  power  coasting    therefrom    is    the    correct    relative 

input  mounts  in  large  increments.     Hence  a  measure  of  efficiency  in  practical  car  operation, 

point  is  reached  where  the  reduction  in  plat-  The  percent  coasting  is,  therefore,  the  proper 

form  expense,  due  to  increased  schedule  speed,  basis  for  a  correct  method  efficiency  checking 

is  offset  by  the  increase   in   power  expense,  system, 
dependent    for    given    conditions    upon    the 

relative   unit   costs   for   platform   and   power  ~ .       ^ 

expense.     The    relation    of   such    unit    costs,  Rlco  Coasting  Recorder 

encountered    in    practice,    is    such    that    any  The  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  (Fig.   1-A)  is 

schedule  speed  which  is  too  high  to  result  in  essentially  a  clock  mechanism  of  simple  and 

possible  coasting  is  an  uneconomical  schedule  rugged  design,  so  constructed  and  connected, 

speed.  by  suitable  electric  relay  with  the  car  wiring 

and  brake  equipment,  as  to  measure  and  print 

Coasting  an  Essential  Factor  the  time  durinS  which  the  car  is  ^motion 

^     P  with  "power  off"  and  "brakes  off,"  or  in  other 

words,  the  coasting  time.     Therefore  the  Rico 

The  fundamental  principles,  summarized  in  Coasting  Recorder  meets  the  requisites  for  a 
the  preceding  paragraphs  (I)  to  (IV)  inclusive,  correct  method  efficiency  checking  system, 
establish  for  given  conditions  and  equipment  The  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  during  the  past 
of  given  gear  ratio,  that  efficiency  is  solely  five  years  has  been  so  widely  advertised  by 
dependent  upon  the  efficient  utilization  of  descriptive  articles  in  the  technical  trade 
the  controlling  time-element  factors ;  the  effi-  press  on  its  varied  and  numerous  installations 
cient  utilization  of  these  time-element  factors  on  representative  railway  systems,  that  space 
is  measured  by  the  coasting  time  and  percent  will  not  be  taken  here  to  describe  its  details, 
coasting  for  the  varying  conditions  encoun-  The  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  for  each  trip 
tered  in  practical  operations.  For  any  sched-  run  gives  the  motorman  a  printed  voucher 
ule  speed  now  in  effect  on  any  railway  or  for  slip  (see  Fig.  2-A)  showing  the  car  number, 
any  adopted  schedule  speed,  increase  in  coast-  the  motorman's  number  and  the  coasting  time 
ing  means  increase  in  efficiency;  and  any  in  minutes.  Such  voucher  slip  shows  the  motor- 
schedule  speed  to  be  economical  must  be  man  (and  his  executive)  how  and  when  he 
such  as  to  permit  possible  coasting.  operates  efficiently  through  his  efficient  utili- 
For  a  given  car,  with  given  equipment,  there  zation  of  the  time-element  factors  which  are 
is  a  most  economical  schedule  speed,  dependent  the  only  factors  under  the  motorman's  control 
upon  traffic  conditions  and  the  relative  unit  that  can  possibly  affect  the  power  input. 


Rico  Coasting  Recorder 


Figure  1-A 

Rico  Coasting  Recorder 


263  oo- 

263 17 


1467 
1467 


BADGE  NO. 
COASTING  MINUTES 


CAR  No. 


Figure  2-A 
Voucher  Slip 


"RICO"  Type  No.  DB590  Form  G 
Rico  Coasting  Recorder  Relay 


Engraved  Motorman's  Key 
tor  Rico  Coasting  Recorder 


[13] 


Rico  Terminal  Clock 


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in  space  after  trip  number. 

Rico  Terminal  Clock  Automatically 

Records  the  Running 

Time 

(For  use  with  Rico  Coasting  Recorder) 


Running  Time    Envelope    Showing 

Facsimile  Record  from  Rico 

Terminal  Clock 


[14] 


Rico  C  &  S  Recorder 


Figure  3-A 

Exterior  View 


Figure  5-A 
Engraved  Motorman's  Key 


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16- 

46^ 

450 

1274 

S   i 

42 

05-. 
06- 

16-.- 

46-1 

450 

1274 

6   i 

29 

02-E- 

13- 
14- 

43-: 

450 

1274 

7   • 

41 

05- 
06-" 

16^ 

45^ 

450 

1274 

9   • 

59 

08-- 

13-  j 
14-' 

48  -.• 

450 

543 

9    i 

57 

07- 
08-" 

15-E- 

47- 

450 

543 

10  • 

48 

06^- 

16f 

45^- 

450 

543 

11   • 

39 

03^- 

18^- 

45- 

450 

543 

12  • 

13  i 

14. 

15  « 

16  i 

17. 

10. 

19  - 

3 

53<! 

(r>0 

•5.TO 

TOTALS 

MOTORMAVS  PAY  TIME 

TIM£  CLERK 

** 

FIRiT 

SECOND                     TWRD                »H'rT 

ON      [     OFF 

ON 

OfF           ON     |     OFF        TOT.U. 

g3«  g£«*  1  a  8*  SfO_ 

Figure  4- A 
Interior  View— Cover  Removed 


Figure  6- A 
Rico  C  &  S  Recorder— Card  Form  Record 


[15] 


Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  Relay 


Figure  7-A 
Exterior  View — Front 


Figure  9-A 

Exterior  View — Back 


Figure  8-A 

Interior  View — Front 


Figure  10-A 
Interior  View — Back 


[16] 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


The  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  is  not  a  watt  or 
ampere-hour  meter,  which  obviously  can  mea- 
sure only  the  power  input;  but  it  is  the  correct 
tool  and  accurate  yard-stick  for  measuring  the 
motorman's  efficient  utilization  of  the  time- 
element  factors  that  control  the  efficient  use 
of  the  power  input. 

The  fundamental  principles,  considered  and 
analyzed,  as  to  the  effect  of  the  controlling 
time-element  factors,  demonstrate  that  in- 
creased efficiency,  developed  through  a  correct 
method  efficiency  checking  system,  means  not 
only  reduction  in  power  input,  but  reduction 
in  brake  shoe  wear  and  motor  temperature, 
thereby  reducing  the  maintenance  expenses. 

Likewise,  it  is  also  obvious  that  the  efficient 
utilization  of  the  time-element  factors  results 
in  better  conformance  to  the  established  sched- 
ule speed,  with  less  variation  between  the 
maximum  attained  speed  and  the  average 
schedule  speed;  also  that  such  an  efficiency 
checking  system  must  develop  a  standard  of 
alertness  in  the  motorman — all  controlling 
factors  in  reduction  of  accident  liability. 

The  efficiency  checking  system  based  on 
the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder,  when  applied 
in  practical  operation,  has  generally  developed 
such  a  standard  of  efficiency  in  handling  the 
car  equipment  that  schedule  speeds  have  been 
increased  and  efficiently  maintained. 

TABLE  I-A 

The  Ratio  of  increase  "Percent  Coasting"  to  decrease 
"Percent  Power"  has  been  determined  by  carefully 
conducted  Tests,  under  actual  conditions  of  operation, 
upon  metered  sections  or  systems  of  several  typical 
Railway  Companies,  covering  widely  divergent  operating 
conditions,  as  follows:  


(17) 


NAME  OF  ROAD 


San  Francisco-Oakland  Terminal  Railway 

Denver  Tramway  Company 

Pacific  Electric  Railway ...  ;,-•••.•  •  •  • 

Metropolitan  West  Side  "L,"  Chicago 

Bay  State  Street  Railway .  .  .  , .  .  • • 

Washington  Railway  &  Electric  Go 

Northern  Texas  Traction  Co 

Los  Angeles  Railway  Co 

Empire  United  Railways.  .  .  .  . . ... . .  •  •  • 

Milwaukee  Electric  Railway  &  Light  Oo 


Elevated . 


Syracuse  Rapid  Transit  Co .  . •     lt 

borough  Rapid  Transit  Co ^ 


Ratio  of  Increase 

Percent  Coasting  to 

Decrease  Percent 

Power 

1.22%  Saving 
1.1%.  Saving 
1.06%  Saving 
0.98^ 
1.05« 


Saving 
Saving 

1.02%  Saving 
1.2%    Saving 
1.07%  Saving 
Saving 
Saving 
Saving 
Saving 
Saving 
Saving 
Saving 


,  Saving 


she 

ditioE_, 

less  voltage  drop 

consequent  imprc 

ditions  of  operation 

actual  operation. 


,— 

thereby 


The  results  obtainable  by  the  Rico  Coasting 
Recorder,  Correct  Method  Efficiency  Checking 
System,  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

[I]  EFFECT  ON  POWER: 

1.  A  saving  in  power  consumption;  the  percent- 
age of  saving  in  power  being  approximately 
directly  proportional  to  the  increased  percent- 
age of  coasting.    (See  Table  I-A.) 

2.  A  lowering  of  the  peak  on  the  power  station. 

a.  Due  to  the  decrease  in  average  power  con- 
sumption, per  car,  per  hour  of  operation. 

b.  Due  to  the  motorman's  time  in  accelerat- 
ing the  car  becoming  more  uniform  and 
approximating  the  calculated  acceleration 
time,    based    on    the    motor   equipment 
characteristic  performance  for  established 
schedule  speed  and  traffic  conditions. 

[  II  ]  EFFECT  ON  BRAKE  -  SHOE 
MAINTENANCE  : 

Due  to  saving  in  direct  brake-shoe  wear.  The 
energy  to  be  dissipated  in  brakes  varies  as  the 
square  of  the  speed  at  the  time  of  applying  the 
brakes.  Therefore,  as  a  portion  of  the  energy 
stored  in  the  car  is  utilized  in  coasting,  the  speed 
at  the  time  of  applying  the  brakes  is  less,  with 
resultant  reduction  in  the  energy  to  be  dissipated 
by  the  brakes. 

[  III  ]  EFFECT  ON  EQUIPMENT: 

1.  Decrease  of  armature  and  other  motor  troubles 
due  to  smaller  rise  in  temperature,  resulting 
from  lower  average  amperes  passing  through 
the  motor. 

2.  Decrease  in  wear  and  tear  on  equipment  in 
general,  resulting  also  in  saving   in   mainte- 
nance and  renewals  of  wheels,  gears,  etc. 

[IV]  EFFECT  ON  RUNNING  TIME: 

The  regular  running  time  is  made  more  uni- 
form per  trip  and  closely  approximates  the 
schedule  running  time,  due  to  the  system  of 
checking  by  the  use  of  the  Rico  Coasting 
Recorders. 

[V]  EFFECT  ON  ACCIDENTS: 

Decrease  of  accident  liability. 

Due  to  lowering  of  maximum   attained 

speed,  hence  resulting  in  more  uniform 

speed. 

Due  to  more  uniform  braking. 

c.  Due  to  power  being  on  for  a  smaller  per- 
centage of  the  time,  thus  leading  to  one 
less  operation  to  stop  or  reverse  the  car, 
as  necessity  may  demand. 

d    A  motorman  to  obtain  maximum  co: 
time  must  at  all  times  be  on  the  alei 
avail  himself  of  all  opportune 
fore,  as  a  natural  deduction  the  moton 
ceases  to  be  an  automaton     He  become; 
a  thinking  operator  on  the  alert 
times.       Hence    under    these    condition 
accidents  to  pedestrians  and   tram 
hides  will  diminish. 


a. 


b. 


[18]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  economical  schedule  speeds  based  on  the  analy- 
sis of  the  accurate  record  of  traffic  conditions, 

Both  the  consideration  of  the  fundamental  for  each  hour  and  minute  of  each  car,  on  every 
principles  of  car  operation  efficiency  and  the  line  and  route  of  a  railway  system, 
results  obtained  on  the  large  number  of  rep-  To  meet  the  requirements  for  the  attain- 
resentative  railway  systems,  establish  the  Rico  ment  of  these  additional  efficiencies  the  Rail- 
Coasting  Recorder  as  a  correct  principle  and  way  Improvement  Company,  manufacturer 
an  effective  "tool"  for  attaining  the  increased  of  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder,  has  developed 
efficiency,  which  in  practical  operation  is  at-  the  Rico  Coasting  and  Service  Recorder, 
tainable  only  through  the  human  equation —  designated  for  commercial  abbreviation,  the 
the  individual  motorman.  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder. 

Not  all  the  time-element  factors,  that  have  The  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  is  a  development 

been   shown   as   controlling   and   determining  based  on  the  essential  features  of  the  Rico 

possible  efficiencies  for  given  conditions   are  .Coasting  Recorder,  modified  in  design  to  give 

within   the   control   of  the   motorman.      For  in  printed  form  the  essential  factors,  encoun- 

illustration,  the  motorman  has  only  part  par-  tered  in  practical  operations,  that  affect  car 

ticipation  in  the  resultant  duration  of  stop,  operation  efficiency. 

while  the  schedule  speed  and  number  of  stops  The    Rico   C    &    S     Recorder    equipment, 

are  wholly  determined  by  others  and  by  the  necessary  for  each  electric  car  or  each  mul- 

traffic  conditions.  tiple  unit  train  operated,  consists  of  the  Rico 

The  fundamental  principles  demonstrate  that  C    &    S    Recorder,   see  Figs.    3-A    and    4-A, 

for  a  given  car  and  its  equipment  of  given  gear  with  its  electric  relay,  see  Figs.  7-A  to  10-A, 

ratio,  there  is  an  economical  schedule  speed,  inclusive. 

dependent  upon  the  traffic  conditions  and  the  The  record  from  the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder 

unit  costs  of  power  and  platform  expense.  is  printed  on   a  card  form.    Fig.  6-A  is  a  fac- 

The  curves  showing  the  relation  of  total  simile,  typical  of  the  record  and  data  obtain- 

power  and  platform  expense  to  schedule  speed,  able  from    the  Rico    C  &  S  Recorder  equip- 

Fig.   14,  p.  36,  Chapter  II,  hereof,  show  a  ment.     The  identification    of   the  motorman 

rapid  increase  in  the  cents  per  car-mile  cost,  is    established   by   the   motorman's   engraved 

for  power  and  platform  expense,  for  a  compara-  key  (Fig.  S-A),  inserted  to    operate  the    Re- 

tively  short  range  departure  either  above  or  corder  and  obtain  the  record, 

below  the  most   economical   schedule   speed.  Referring  to    Fig.  6-A,  from  left    to  right, 

It  is  readily  apparent  from  these  curves  that  the  card  record  shows  for  each  trip  of  a  run  or 

material  increase  in  operating  expenses,  per  between  any  designated  points  for  which  the 

car,    per   year,    must    result    from    improper  information  is  desired,  the  following: 

schedule  speeds,  for  given  car  equipment  and  COLUMNS.,  the  record  of  the  total  number  of  stops; 

traffic  conditions.  COLUMN  ST.,  the  record  of  the  aggregate  total 

The  most  economical  schedule  speed   for  a  time  in  minutes,  consumed  by  the  total  num- 

given  car  and  its  equipment,  for  given  power  her  of  stops; 

and  platform  unit  costs,  is  a  function  of  the  COLUMN  C.T.,  the  coasting  time  in  minutes; 

average  number  of  stops  per  mile,    coupled,  COLUMN  R.T.,  the  actual  total  running  time,  in 

of  course,  with  the  average  duration  of  stops  minutes,  and  includes  in  such  total,  the  aggre- 

.„                i    •      IT-       ir           -2/r    r^u              TT  gate  stopping  time  (Column  ST.); 

as  illustrated  in  Fig.   15,  p.  36,  Chapter  II,  ...                          .  , 

COLUMN  BADGE  No.,  the  number  of  the  motor- 

hereot.  man  operating  the  car,  when  the  record  was 

The   attainment   of  possible   efficiencies   in  obtained; 

car   operation,   in   practice,   means   not   only  COLUMN  CAR  No.,  the  number  of  the  car  on 

improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  the  motorman,  which  the  record  was  taken'» 

under  any  existing  schedule  speed  and  traffic  COLUMN  TRIP  No.,  at  the  extreme  right,  is  self- 

,.  .            i                                     „!                       ft  explanatory.     It  acts  as  a  guide  and  gage  to 

conditions,    but    also    means    the    accomplish-  gj   motorman   for   placing  the   records   con- 

ment  of  additional  attainable  efficiencies  from  secutively  on  the  form  card. 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


[19] 


The  columns  S.,  .S.T.,  C.T.,  and  R.T.,  are 
totaled  for  the  motorman's  daily  operation,  and 
entered  as  indicated. 

The  card  can  be  arranged  with  space  at  the 
bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6-A,  for  entry  by 
the  time  clerk  of  the  motorman's  pay  time, 
for  the  day.  This  entry  can  be  made  by  the 
time  clerk,  or  by  an  automatic  time  clock, 
showing  the  day  of  the  month  and  the  motor- 
man's  exact  time  on  and  off  duty,  leaving  only 
the  footing  of  his  automatic  record  of  pay  time, 
to  be  entered  by  the  time  clerk,  as  shown  on 
Fig.  6-A.  This  particular  motorman's  total 
pay  time  tor  November  25,  1915,  was  580 
minutes  or  9  hours  and  40  minutes  for  the 
^ 

The  record  shown  on  the  card  form,  Fig.  6- 
A  is  taken  as  typical  of  the  twelve  trips,  made 
by  Motorman  No.  450,  on  Nov.  25,  1915,  his 
operations  being  on  a  route,  covering  in  each 
trip  a  distance  of  7^2  miles,  with  a  schedule, 

speed  °f         *  requiring  4S  min" 


matic  analyst  which  can  tell  him  not  once  a 
year,  once  a  month,  once  a  week  or  once  a  day 
the  vital  factors  that  affect  operating  costs  and 
service  standard  results,  but  a  device  that  re- 
veals such  factors  from  minute  to  minute 
in  the  operation  of  each  car! 

The  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder,  it  is  apparent, 
possesses  all  the  advantages  and  secures  all 
the  results  obtainable  from  the  Rico  Coasting 
Recorder. 

The  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder,  also,  makes 
available  for  study  and  analysis  the  constant, 
accurate  and  automatic  record  of  the  vital  fac- 
tors of  varying  traffic  conditions  for  utiliza- 
tion in  the  determination  of  economical  sched- 
ule speeds  and  for  analysis  of  the  equities  of 
standards  for  service. 

The  operations  required  to  obtain  the 
record  from  the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  are 
quickly  made  and  "foolproof."  In  the  making 
of  the  record  all  the  type  dials  return  to  zero 


the  record  of  the 
day's  operations  can  be  analyzed  as  follows: 

Total  number  miles,  for  all  trips  .....       90  miles 

Total  number  stops,  for  all  trips     .  .  . 

Average  number  stops  per  n  ^ 

Totluggregate'timeVs'-T.)  consumed 

in  total  stops  of  all  trips.  .60  mms.  or  3600  si 
Average  duration  of  stop,  for  all  trips    6.67  sees. 
Total  running  .time  (R/T.)  being  the 


55Q    .ns 
for  all  trips  .................... 

Coasting  time  (C.T.)  for  all  trips 

Per  cent  coasting,  the  measure  of  the 


550  or...  .•_•„••• 

The  earning  or  income  time  (K.  1  .Jot 


Comparison  with  the  total 

entered  by  the  time  clerk,  for  the 


Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  an  Automatic 

Analyst  of  Railway  Operation 
TbewonderMp^biU^of^i^d^ 

able  bv  the  use  of  the  Rico  C  &  S  Reco 

1  Vt  once  to  the  practical  railway  oper- 
^wJhThe^  at'his  command  an  auto- 


clerical  work  required  in  making  any  desired 
fboti^jjj  analys,.^  ^  c  &  g  ^^ 

fecord  makes  it  more  convenient  for  handling, 
reference  and  preservation  than  the  tape  form 
^^  ^  in  thc  RicQ  Coasting  Recorder. 

The  principles    analyzed    and  discussed 
Chapter  II  demonstrate  that  the   obtamabl 
iWc  efficiency  for  the  operation  of  a  given 
F  equipment  can  be  calculated  for 

Tny  gten  scUle  speed,  with  the  factors 
known  as  to  the  average  stops  per  mile  and 

of  the  stops>  etc. 
«ic  g   Rccor(Jcr 

^tSaM^correct.re.ative  measure 
Of  the  motorman's  efficiency,  snot  only 

Dercent  coasting,  but  the  data  are  av.ul- 
Sle  to'  c^ck  his  actla.  efficiency  with  the 

obtainable   efficiency  for  the   schedule  sp* 
BMH  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^ 

The   Rico   C  &  S    Recorder   removes 
tion 


are  available 


[20]  INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 

The  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder    records    make  mine  by  calculation  and   present  in  tangible 

available  the  data  for  determination  of  the  proof  and  form  the  betterments  in  service  ob- 

suitability  of  the  gear  ratio  of  the  equipment  tainable   by   reducing   the    number   of   stops 

from  the  record  of  the  traffic  condition  re-  through   some   reasonable   skip   stop   rule   or 

quirements.  regulation. 

The  records  of  the  number  of  stops  and  dura-  Furthermore  with  the  record  of  the    Rico 

tion  of  stops,  in  connection  with  the  passenger  C  &  S  Recorder  available,  the  proof  for  the 

record  data,  can  be  utilized  to  determine  the  unequitableness  or  hardship  of  hasty  and  often 

efficiency  in  practical  operations  of  entrance-  ill-advised   service   standards,    can   be   estab- 

door  designs,   step  heights,   seating  arrange-  lished. 
ments,  etc.,  thus  giving  definite  data  for  de- 

termining  their  adoption.  Similarly,  the  adapt-  Measurement  Not  An  Effective 
ability  and    advantages    of    high    efficiency  .       , 
bearings,  methods  for  lubrication,  etc.,  can  be  rLniciency  dneCK 
checked,  having  the  schedule  running  time,  The   use  of  a  watt  or  ampere-hour  meter 
coasting  time,  etc.,  obtainable  therewith,  avail-  naturally  suggests  itself  as  a  method  for  check- 
able as  an  automatic  printed  record,  from  the  ing  car  operation  efficiency. 
car  or  cars  so  equipped,  for  comparison  with  It   is    self-evident    that    neither   the    Rico 
similar  records  on  the  existing  car  equipment.  Coasting  Recorder  or  the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder 

nor  the  meter  (watt  or  ampere  hour)  will  of 

m  .     f.               ,  0       .       n         IT  themselves  effect  any  savings,  except  by  the 

Skip  Stop  and  Service  Standards  utilization  of  the  records  obtained  as  an  effi- 

Every  railway  executive  and  transportation  ciency  checking    system,  to  improve  thereby 

manager  has  long  realized  that  the  number  of  the  efficiency  of  the  human  equation — the  indi- 

stops  affects  not  only  the  cost  of  service,  but  vidual  operator. 

the  limitations  of  the  service  attainable  with  The  fundamental  principles   for  car  opera- 
available  equipment.  tion  efficiency  demonstrate  that  the  efficient 

The  American  Electric  Railway  Association  utilization  of  certain  time-element  factors  solely 
has  made  extended  investigations  upon  the  controls  the  ultimate  results.  Unless  the  effi- 
study  of  the  effects  of  the  number  of  stops.  cient  utilization  of  these  time-element  factors 
Such  studies  being  determined  only  by  per-  is  checked  and  efficiency  obtained  by  the 
sonal  investigation  surveys,  have  necessarily  correct  method  of  checking  the  controlling 
been  limited  in  scope,  but  have  pointed  to  the  time-element  factors,  the  best  obtainable  effi- 
unerring  conclusion  that  the  number  of  stops  ciency  cannot  be  approached  in  practical  opera- 
is  a  vital  factor  in  the  costs  and  standards  for  tions. 
service.  The  principles  analyzed  and  summarized 

In  Chapter  II,  p.  39,  we  have  shown  how  in  Chapter  II  establish  the  measurement  of 

the  advantages  and  value  of  the  Skip  Stop  on  the   controlling   time-element   factors   as   the 

the  quantity  and  time  for  transportation  serv-  correct  basis  for  an  effective  efficiency  checking 

ice  is  a  matter  of  exact  calculation  for  given  system.  The  logical  and  fair  consideration  and 

equipment  and  conditions.  analysis   of  the   principles   involved,   demon- 

The  great  difficulty  has  been  that   no  real  strate  that  the  meter  does  not  measure  up  to 

information  as  to  the  number  of  stops  and  the  the  requirements, — the  Coasting  Recorder  does. 

time  consumed  thereby  is  known  in  reference  As  shown  on  p.  35,  Chapter  II,  hereof,  the 

to  any  railway's  regular  practical  operations.  measurement  at  the  car  of  power  input  only 

The  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  gives  this  data  is  an  incorrect  and  misleading  measure  of  the 
for  every  route  and  car  of  the  system.  With  motorman's  actual  efficiency.  Such  measure- 
its  record  available,  the  railway  operator  knows  ment  means  nothing,  unless  analyzed  in  refer- 
the  limitations  placed  upon  his  service  by  the  ence  to  the  component  time-element  factors, 
existing  conditions  of  stops  and  can  deter-  which  control  and  determine  the  power  input; 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


[21] 


for  as  demonstrated,  the  kw.-hrs.  per  car  mile     of  railway  accounting  are  based  on  the  kilowatt- 
™     -crease  in   excessof     ^  unlt^t  is  poss^ly 


•7-7 1/                    j             «  MUIJT  d  iiaiurai  error  to  con- 

/3  per  cent,  due  to  the  variations  in  such  elude  that  the  measurement  of  power  input  at 

factors    (encountered   in   practical   operation)  the  car  is  a  proper  method  to  check  the  motor 

and  yet  the  actual  efficiency  of  the  motorman,  man's  efficiency. 

in  the  use  of  power,  remain  unimpaired.  However,  it  must  be  conceded  that  a  fair- 
The  incorrectness  of  power  input  meas-  minded  and  reasonable  consideration  of  the 
urement  as  a  basis  of  motorman  rating  and  its  practical  and  technical  principles  involved  will 
disadvantages  as  an  effective  method  for  establish  the  fallacy  of  such  power  measure- 
developing  efficiency  of  the  motorman  is  appar-  ment  being  an  effective,  "Square  Deal"  cffi- 
ent  from  Columns  3  and  4  of  Table  I,  p.  39,  ciency  checking  system. 
Chapter  II,  hereof;  from  which  table  it  is  to  If  the  operating  executive,  in  selecting  an 
be  noted  that  motormen  D,  F,  C  and  E  are  efficiency  checking  system  for  purchase,  does 
given  rated  standings  not  in  accordance  with  not  go  into  the  fundamental  and  basic  prin- 
their  actual  efficiency,  as  shown  in  Column  1  ciples  involved  (which  demonstrate  conclu- 
of  said  Table;  also  it  is  to  be  noted  that  sively  the  time-element  factors,  control  and 
motorman  C,  who  operated  under  the  most  determine  the  ultimate  power  input),  how  can 
severe  traffic  conditions  of  all  (see  Fig.  17,  it  be  expected  that  a  motorman  will  analyze 
p.  37),  is  particularly  discriminated  against  the  apparent  discrepancy  of  the  widely  vary- 
on  the  power  measurement  basis  of  rating.  ing  power  input  readings  that  must  result  (a* 
The  preceding  is  further  illustrated  by  the  hereinbefore  shown)  from  variations  in  prac- 
log  sheet  data  from  a  test  conducted  by  one  tical  traffic  conditions  ? 
of  the  large  operating  companies,  as  follows: 
With  the  same  car  operated  over  the  same 
route,  Motorman  A  made  a  trip  run,  carrying 
a  total  of  70  passengers,  averaging  6  stops  per 
mile  and  used  2.42  kilowatt-hours  per  car  mile  The  real  result  of  interest  to  the  operating 
by  meter  measurement;  Motorman  B  made  the  executive  staff  is  reduction  of  power  at  the 
next  trip  run,  carrying  a  total  of  101  passen-  source  of  supply,  where  the  costs  for  power 
gers,  averaging  7.8  stops  per  mile  and  used  originate. 

2.42   kilowatt-hours  per  car  mile,  by  meter  To  obtain  such  results,  the  executive 
measurement.  bY  a  correct  method  and  means,  should  con- 
Now    based  on  power  input  measurement,  stantly  and  consistently  check  the  individual 
these    'respective    motormen    operated    with  motorman's  efficient   utilization  of 
like  efficiency,  though  even  a  casual  knowledge  trolling  time-element  factors 
of  physical  and  mechanical  principles  indicates  The  efficient  utilization  of 
more  energy  required  for  B  than  A;  the  Rico  factors  is  relatively  correctly  measure 
Coasting  Recorder  reading  on  the  log  sheet  any  and  all  conditions  of  practical  open 
,1     h?  Lv         their  Relative   efficiencies,  by  the  coasting ;  any  increase  coast,^  for  fv? 


Results  Desired — 
How  Obtainable 


tells     he   story 

per  cent  coasting  of  A  was  18.9 


as 


conditions  encountered  m  practice  ( 


suggest  that  efficiency  can 
properly  be  developed  through  a  checking  sys- 

tern  which  indicated  that  A  and  B,  making 
successive  trips  in  regular  operation,  are  alike 
in  efficiency?  Yet  such  would  be  their  ^respec- 
tive  ratings,  if  based  only  on  measurement  of 

data  and  the  unit  costs 


factors    and     consequently    a    reduction    of 
power  ^ 

«**,£%  &  S  Recorder  Etfi- 

System,  the  motorman  (mam- 
J    d}  'has  to  deal  only  with 
of  g  coasting  time,  which  , 
automatically  recorded   in   printed   form   for 


[22]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

each  trip.      Thereby  he  obtains  the   correct  sign-boards    indicating    the    point    at    which 

relative  measure  of  existing  efficiency — a  guide  power  is  to  be  thrown  off  for  a  station  stop, 

and  monitor  for  him  and  record  data  for  the  thus  fixing  a  period  for  coasting  before  applying 

executive  staff  to  compare  with  possible  ob-  the  brakes,  to  make  the  station  stop."    How 

tainable  efficiency.  can  a  company  know  whether  the  instructions 

The  simplicity  and  effectiveness  of  such  a  on  the  sign-board  are  followed,  unless  a  con- 
system  is  apparent  when  compared  with  an  stant,  accurate  record  of  the  motorman's 
efficiency  checking  system  based  on  power  operations  are  available?  Certainly  a  human 
measurement  records  on  the  car.  To  mean  inspector  can  check  only  a  small  percentage 
anything  intelligible  such  a  system  involves  of  car  operations  ! 

laborious  analysis  and  correction  for  the  mul-  We  feel  that  the  purpose  of  this  paper  will 
titudinous  variations  encountered  in  traffic  be  accomplished  if  it  shall  lead  to  the  con- 
operating  conditions.  sideration  of  the  controlling  and  determining 

The  time  and  expense  required  are  likely  to  effect  of  time-element  factors  on  operating  re- 
cause  such  analysis  of  power  measurement  suits. 

records  to  be  "passed  up"  by  the  operating  Time  is  the  essence  of  railroading!  The  time 

executive  staff;  but  in  any  event,  such  records,  essence  applies  to  every  railway  regardless  of 

analyzed,  or  unanalyzed,  logically  lead  to  the  type  and  character  of  traffic  conditions.   When 

bewilderment  and  discouragement  of  the  motor-  the  time-element  factors  are  considered  there 

man, — the    human    equation    through    whom  will  be  no  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  correct 

efficiency  results  must  be  obtained  with  any  method  for  checking  efficiency,  or  as  to  the 

system  for  checking  efficiency.  justification  of  the  necessary  investment  for 

Railway  companies  generally  emphasize  the  a  correct  method  efficiency  checking  system, 
desirability  of  coasting,  as  witnessed  by  the 

space    devoted    thereto   in    practically   every  n        <\^     r          r>       ..•     i 

>    i     i     r     i     r                        1  Results  trom  Practical 
company  s  book  of  rules  for  motormen,  also 

by  their  educational  directions  for  the  motor-  Operation 
man  to  coast  by  means  of  inspectors,  instruc-  Thus  far,  the  purpose  of  our  endeavor  has 
tors,  lectures  on  operation,  tickler  reminder  been  to  point  out  the  fundamental  principles 
cards,  etc.  This  certainly  demonstrates  an  involved  in  car  operation  efficiency  and  the 
appreciation  on  the  railway's  part  that  coast-  application  of  such  principles  to  practical 
ing  is  a  necessary  practical  factor  in  obtaining  operations;  together  with  consideration  of  the 
increased  efficiency.  Yet,  paradoxically,  many  adaptability  of  available  commercial  equip- 
companies  overlook  the  vital  necessity  for  a  ment  for  checking,  in  practice,  the  efficient 
constant,  individual,  accurate  and  effective  utilization  of  the  time-element  factors,  demon- 
checking  record  of  that  coasting, — which  coast-  strated  as  controlling  the  efficiency  results  of 
ing  the  fundamental  principles  demonstrate  practical  operation. 

is  the  correct  relative  measure  of  the  motor-  Therefore,   it   is   now   desirable   to   present 

man's  actual  efficiency.  some  of  the  results  actually  obtained  and  the 

Time  and  money  are  expended  in  following  methods  for  obtaining  same  in  practical  opera- 
up  and  keeping  records  of  almost  all  other  ex-  tions  with  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder, 
penditures  or  possible  leaks  from  income,  The  operating  results  of  more  than  8,000 
while  the  effective  checking  of  the  motorman's  cars  (on  thirty-seven  railways)  whose  opera- 
operations  and  efficiency  in  car  operation,  a  tions  are  checked  with  the  Rico  Coasting 
field  for  prolific  results  in  possible  savings,  Recorder  Efficiency  Checking  System  are 
is  allowed  by  many  companies  to  pass  with  the  available.  These  results  show  10  per  cent  to 
generalities  of  indirect  methods  and  measures,  25  per  cent  reduction  in  power  used  for  trac- 
having  no  other  check  than  the  fallible  one  of  tion  purposes,  15  per  cent  to  45  per  cent  re- 
personal  inspection  by  several  men.  duction  in  brake  shoe  maintenance  and  a 

The  statement  is  often  heard:  "We  have  material    though    less    tangible    reduction    in 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  r23] 

maintenance  and  accident      tion  of  this  saving  is  due  to  the  beneficial  re- 

T?     "      i  suits  obtained   through  the  use  of 

*rom  the  preceding  paragraph  it  appears 
that  nearly  two  score  electric  railways  are  using 
Rico  Coasting  Recorders  to  check  the  motor- 

t*VI   Ol"l  *  1  1   O^  *-»«  4>  l*fc    fi-r-r  -m  .    -.   —  ^ *  1  C 

and  fare 


L  he  several  operating  conditions  of  these  ing  economies, 

companies  represent  the  widest  possible  range  of  Illustrative  of  the  methods  used  in  familiar- 

topography,  of  speed,  of  congestion  in  traffic,  izing  motormen  with  the  use  and  purpose  of 

car  and  tram  service,  and  of  labor  conditions,  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder,  herewith   (pages 

The  success  of  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder,  24  and  25)  is  the  copy  of  a  railway  company's 

therefore,  is  independent  of  local  physical  and  advisory  bulletin  to  motormen,  the  substance 

operating   traditions.     The  progressive  opera-  of  which  can  easily  be  modified  for  the  condi- 

tor,  eager  to  eliminate  every  form  of  waste  tions  of  any  railway  company, 
and  to  exploit  any  aid  to  efficiency,  should  not 

longer  ignore  the  lesson  taught  by  the  results,  r>     n                 T? 

from  operating  companies  using  Rico  Coasting  Operative  Engineering 
Recorder  installations. 

It  is  easier  to  create  than  to  maintain  en-  The  Railway  Improvement  Company,  manu- 

thusiasm ;   the  Rico   Coasting  Recorder  Effi-  facturer  of  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  and  the 

ciency  Checking  System  not  only  creates  but  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder,  emphasizes  the  fact  that 

maintains  enthusiasm.  it  is  not  merely  selling  a  device,  but  a  co-opera- 

For  example,  on  the  Denver  Tramway  Com-  tive  engineering  and  transportation  service. 

pany,  prior  to  the  installation  of  Rico  Coast-  Rico  installations  are  based  upon  a  most 

ing  Recorders  in  1912,  the  average  per  cent  exacting  study  and  analysis  of  the  customer's 

coasting  was  11  per  cent;  since  the  installation  power,  equipment  and  schedule  conditions,  etc. 

this  has  risen  steadily  and  consistently  from  Rico  installations  are  introduced  by  a  thor- 

the  11  per  cent  in  1912  to  40  per  cent  for  1915,  ough  system  of  instruction  in  the  correct  way 

with  a  corresponding  reduction  in  power  for  to  operate  a  car. 

traction  purposes  of  25  per  cent  and  increase  in  Rico  installations  are  accompanied  by  an 

life  of  motor  armatures  of  about  50  per  cent,  organization  which  provides  and  supplies  com- 

The  San  Francisco-Oakland  Terminal  Rail-  petitive  records,  insignias,  etc.,  thus  keeping 

way  Company,  during  the  months  of  Febru-  up  the  interest  of  the  men ;  and  which  arranges 

ary  to   May,   inclusive,   1914,   installed   Rico  for  any  re-instruction  necessary  to  maintain  or 

Coasting  Recorders  to  check  the  operations  improve  coasting  results. 

of  its  360  cars.     The  company  purchases  its  Rico  installations  are  furnished  wit 

power    and  based  on  the  respective  kilowatt-  essary  forms  to  keep  correct  maintenance  and 

hours 'per  car  mile  for  the  calendar  year  1914  cost  records  for  the  Rico  equipmer 

compared  with  1913  operations,  there  was  saved  Finally,  the  Railway  Improvement 

the  -sum  of  £28,718.04;  similarly  the  savings  in  acts  as  a  clearing  house  for  the 

power  for  the  calendar  year  1915  compared  results  by  and  experiences  of  Rico  use n 

with  1913  power  aggregated  256,252.72.  Rico  equipment  has  such  wonderful  po 


rJLettet$ea&  of  ISaUtoar  Company' 

ADVISORY    BULLETIN 
No 


To  Mot  or  men: 


Now  that  all  the  cars  of  this  company  have  been  equipped  with  Rico  Coasting 
Recorders,  no  doubt  some  of  you  motormen  are  probably  asking  what  is  the  use 
of  all  this  expense  and  what  good  are  the  coasting  recorders. 

Have  you  ever  read  Rule  No.  266,  Economical  Use  of  Current,  in  your  book 
of  rules  and  regulations  ?  Are  you  economical  in  the  use  of  your  power  ?  Are 
you  handling  the  car  in  the  best  possible  way?  I  think  I  heard  somebody  say, 
"Yes,  I  believe  I  am  doing  as  well  as  the  next  man."  How  do  you  know  you  are 
without  some  device  to  show  you  what  you  are  doing  from  trip  to  trip  and  day 
to  day? 

Now  stop  and  think  what  happens  when  you  run  a  car.  First,  current  is 
applied,  by  steps,  through  the  controller  and  the  car  gets  up  speed.  When  you 
have  cut  out  all  the  resistance  the  controller  is  at  a  running  point  and  the  speed 
of  the  car  has  very  nearly  reached  its  limit.  When  you  have  a  stop  to  make, 
you  throw  off  the  power  and  then  apply  the  brakes.  Why  do  you  have  to  apply 
brakes?  That  is  simple:  when  the  power  is  applied  a  certain  amount  of  energy 
is  used  to  bring  the  car  up  to  the  speed,  and  then,  to  keep  up  this  speed,  a  constant 
amount  must  be  applied  to  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  the  friction  of 
the  moving  parts,  and  the  car  has  a  certain  amount  of  energy  stored  up  in  it. 
Now,  suppose  after  you  have  thrown  off  the  power  and  you  do  not  apply  the 
brakes.  The  speed  of  the  car  will  gradually  decrease  and  finally  come  to  a  stop. 
In  other  words,  the  energy  that  is  stored  up  in  the  car  will  carry  it  quite  a  dis- 
tance without  further  application  of  power.  You  say,  "Yes,  sure,  but  if  that  is 
done  it  will  take  longer  to  cover  that  distance  and  if  I  tried  it  I  would  lose  time." 
There  is  no  doubt  about  that,  but  don't  carry  this  method  too  far.  Turn  off  the 
power  far  enough  back  from  the  stop  and  let  the  natural  forces  reduce  a  portion  of 
the  car  speed,  then  apply  the  brakes  and  bring  the  car  to  a  nice,  easy  stop.  Every 
time  you  do  this  you  are  saving  power  by  using  a  portion  of  the  energy  that  is 
stored  up  in  the  moving  car. 

The  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  shows  whether  you  are  availing  yourself  of  this 
opportunity.  It  is  a  device  which  registers  the  actual  time  that  the  car  is  moving 
without  power  and  without  application  of  brakes.  An  application  of  either 
power  or  brakes  instantly  stops  the  measuring  mechanism  of  the  Recorder. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  by  careful  operation  you  can  coast  more,  still 
maintaining  the  running  time,  and  by  having  your  car  under  better  control  decrease 
accidents,  at  the  same  time  helping  your  company  by  helping  to  utilize  the  power 
more  efficiently. 

Now  you  say,  "I  am  going  out  and  pay  a  little  more  attention  to  the  way  I 
use  power.  How  can  I  increase  my  coasting  and  still  keep  up  my  record  as  a 
careful  man?" 

FIRST:  The  more  attention  you  pay  to  your  operation,  the  less  trouble  you 
will  have. 

SECOND:  The  more  attention  you  pay  to  your  operation,  the  more  coasting 
you  will  do. 

THIRD:  The  greatest  acceleration  in  miles  per  hour,  for  the  general  average 
conditions  of  operation,  can  be  obtained  only  by  a  strict  adherence  to  the  time 


rate  of  acceleration.     You  have  received  instructions  as  to  the  proper  rates  of 
acceleration,  determined  as  suitable  in  practical  operations,  for  our  company' 
T%^^™™S:^^"«0^  in  Practice  is  ^,  generally,  too'raoic 


»  .  °  - »««».,    Kvilt.1  any  .    itnj    IdUI 

acceleration,  but  *oo  irregular  acceleration;  the  motorman  pausing  longer  than 
he  should  on  one  point,  only  to  rob  the  next  of  its  proper  time  element-or  even 
passing  over  the  same  without  a  pause. 

FOURTH:  Energy  once  stored  in  a  car  can  be  dispelled  only  through  coasting 
or  braking.  One  application  of  air  with  a  graduated  release  (where  possible)  is 
good  practice.  The  fewer  applications  of  air  ("fanning  the  air")  in  stopping  a 
car,  the  higher  the  coasting  obtainable. 

FIFTH:  Length  of  stop  is  materially  lengthened  by  the  failure  of  the  "Rear 
End"  operator  to  give  the  bell  promptly— or  because  the  "Front  End"  operator 
is  not  on  the  alert  to  start  his  car  when  "given  the  bell."  Length  of  stop  is  also 
materially  increased  when  the  operator  indulges  in  "inefficient  braking."  Regular 
passengers  soon  come  to  know  the  careful  operators  on  their  lines  and  will  leave 
their  seats  when  approaching  their  regular  stopping  points  and  are  all  ready  to 
alight  when  car  comes  to  a  standstill.  The  "inefficient  braking"  operator  has  the 
opposite  effect  on  his  passengers,  thus  causing  longer  stops. 

SIXTH:  Increased  number  of  stops  per  mile,  on  certain  trips,  are  often  caused 
by  the  operator  "dragging  the  line,"  thus  carrying  not  only  his  own  normal  "Run 
Load,"  but  part  of  his  "followers." 

SEVENTH:  A  good  coasting  record,  day  by  day  and  week  by  week,  is  not 
brought  about  by  spurts  but  by  the  adding  up  of  the  coasting  in  small  amounts. 
You  may  try  to  secure  a  long  coast  where  coasting  is  apparently  easy  only  to  lose 
it  in  small  amounts  when  you  find  that  you  have  lost  time  and  have  to  make  it 
up.  The  highest  records  are  made  )by  paying  attention  to  the  small  amounts 
obtainable  just  before  stops,  traffic  slow-downs,  etc.  Unless  it  is  an  emergency 
case,  make  a  practice  of  throwing  off  the  power,  say,  3  or  4  seconds  before  apply- 
ing the  brakes.  This  increase  in  coasting  is  not  noticed  by  casual  observation 
but  results  in  a  great  increase  in  total  coasting  time  at  the  end  of  each  trip  or  at 
the  end  of  the  day.  Increased  coasting  obtained  in  this  manner  does  not  affect 
the  schedule  running  time,  as  the  momentum  of  the  car  is  not  sufficiently  retarded 
during  the  coasting  periods,  to  be  noticeable. 

In  carrying  out  the  foregoing  suggestions,  see  what  you  can  do  by  utilizing 
the  stored-up  energy  of  the  moving  car  in  the  following  ways: 

[11     Coast  behind  a  leading  car  instead  of  using  power  till  you  have  to  make 
a  heavy  application  of  brakes.     Keep  far  enough  behind  so  that  all  his  stops 
will  not  cause  you  to  stop.    You  can't  pass  him  on  the  same  track,  and  yoi 
utilize  this  time  by  coasting. 

[21     Coast  to  a  passenger  or  bell  stop.     Unless  the  bell  is  short  or  the  sign; 
by  a  passenger  is  given  late,  you  can  always  throw  off  a  few  seconds  be fo 
ing  brakes  and  you  will_be  surprised  how  it  adds  up  at  the  end  of 

[3] 

throw 

under  UCLLCI  VAJHH.W*  ...  v.«.~~  —  — ''v0    i 
cleared  you  can  again  apply  power,  thus  losing  very  l.ttle 

,4,     Coast  to  cu-S  -d  siding    Never •„, ,  ,n,o a .*£  ^curve  «. 

spied  is  reduced,  release  and  coast  around  the  curve. 


Approved: 


[  SIGNED!. 


Superintendent  of  Transportataoo. 


SIGNED 


General  Superintendent. 


[26]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

complishing  the  possibilities  of  Rico  equipment  the  effective  utilization  of  the  controlling  time- 
in  the   practical  operations  of  railway  com-  element   factors,    effects   a    reduction   in   the 
panics.  "demand"  on  the  generating  station  and  dis- 
tribution system  (see  p.  40,  Chapter  II).     The 

Monetary  Value  of  Obtainable  consideration  and  analysis  of  these  matters  for 

P        i  actual  conditions  in  operation  shows  that  for 

each   dollar   invested    in    the    Rico   Coasting 

The  results  obtained  in  the  operation  of  a  Recorder  or  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  Efficiency 
given  railway  can  or  should  be  capable  of  Checking  Systems  from  35.00  to  310.00  in 
determination  from  the. -analysis  of  the  oper-  power  generating,  sub-station  and  distribution 
ating  statistics  of  such  railway.  system  investment  is  not  required  or  is  avail- 
Trie  obtainable  possible  results  can  be  de-  able  for  other  purposes,  dependent  upon  con- 
termined  by  calculation  from  the  application  ditions  and  the  existing  type  of  construction, 
of  the  principles  herein  discussed  (in  Chapter  Therefore,  there  are  available,  not  only  in- 
II)  to  the  analysis  of  the  company's  equipment  creased  net  earnings  from  operating  Rico 
in  reference  to  existing  or  adopted  schedule  equipment,  but  there  is  saved  or  released  a 
speeds,  number  stops  per  mile,  etc.,  for  the  capital  investment  that  is  several  times  greater 
average  operating  conditions.  than  the  capital  investment  for  the  Rico  equip- 

The  difference  between  such  obtainable  re-  ment. 
suits  and    the    existing  results  represents  the 

savings  possible  by  increased  efficiency  in  oper-  Yidds  Highest  Net  Retum 
ation. 

We  believe  a  fair-minded  consideration  and 

analysis  of  the  whole  problem  and  the  factors  The  investigation  of  the  results  obtained  in 

entering   it    will    be    convincing    as    to    the  practical  operation  will  demonstrate  that  either 

large  possibilities  for  increased  efficiency  even  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  or  the  Rico  C  &  S 

to  those  who,  heretofore,  have  contemplated  Recording  Efficiency  Checking  System  yields 

their  present  operating  results  with  satisfaction.  higher  net  returns  on  the  investment,   after 

The  results  obtained  by  railway  companies  allowing  operating   expenses,   including   fixed 

utilizing  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  Efficiency  charges,  than  can  be  obtained  from  any  other 

Checking  System  show  net  savings,  after  de-  system    available   commercially  for  checking 

ducting  maintenance  and  operating  expenses  the  efficiency  of  car  operation, 
for  the  Rico  equipment,  ranging  from  350.00 

to  3200.00  per  car  per  year  dependent  upon  the  Deferred  Payments 

conditions  or  operation,  the  cost  of  power,  etc.  p       i,         pi 
The  analysis  of  results  obtained  in  practice, 

indicate  that  for  the  conditions  of  the  average  In  conclusion,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the 

company,  approximately  the  entire  cost  of  the  purchase  of  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  and  Rico 

Rico   Coasting   Recorder   equipment    can   be  C  &  S  Recorder  equipment  can  be  arranged 

saved  each  year  of  its  operation.  through  the  Railway  Improvement  Company 

The  utilization  of  the  Rico  C  &  S  Recorder  by  mutual  agreement,  on  the  basis  of  deferred 

(see  p.   18),  now  offered  for  commercial  use,  payments,  making  possible  the  payment  out 

makes  possible  even  greater  net  savings  than  of  the  net  savings  obtainable  and  in  many 

those  accomplished  by  the    use   of  the  Rico  instances  with   a   possible   handsome   surplus 

Coasting  Recorder.  remaining  in  addition  to  the  requirements  for 

The  increased   efficiency  obtained  through  meeting  such  deferred  payments. 


Chapter  Two 


Fundamental  Principles  of  Car  Operation  Efficiency 


Chapter  Two 


A  Study  of  the  Practical  and  Technical  Principles  Involved  in  the  Use  of  the 
Time-Element  Factors  in  Railway  Operation,  Particularly  in  Determining 
the  Most  Economical  Rates  of  Acceleration,  Braking  and  Speed 
from  the  Standpoint  of  Power  and  Platform  Costs 

BY  C.  C.  CHAPPELLE 

Consulting  Engineer  and  Vice-President 
Railway  Improvement  Company 

EVERY  traction  company  executive  and  the  ordinary  every-day  operations  of  electric 

his  operating  staff  are  confronted  with  railway  systems. 

the  necessity  for  increased  economies  in  The  first  point  to  remember  in  this  connec- 

operation  on  account  of  the  greater  cost  of  tion  is  that  time  is  the  essence  of  railroading 

money  needed  to  meet  the  constant  demand  before  and  after  construction.  Success  depends 

for  new  capital,  and  because  the  general  busi-  upon  the  efficiency  with  which  railway  opera- 

ness  depression   and  the  competition  of  the  tions  are  performed  in  established  intervals 

automobile    tend    to    curtail   gross   earnings,  of  time. 

Obviously,  increases  in  gross  earnings  are  not  In  considering  and  analyzing  the  effective 

to    be    expected    under   conditions   generally  utilization  of  time  on  a  railway  in  operation 

existing.  we  must  aPPty  tne  same  Prmc*ples  which  are 

In  searching  for  means  of  reducing  operating  used  in  determining  by  calculation  the  power 

expenses   attention   would   naturally  first   be  and  equipment  requirements  of  a  railway  pr 

directed  to  the  motor,  but  the  manufacturers  to  its  construction. 

of  motor  equipment  cannot  be  expected  to  In  determining  the  capacity  of 

secure    efficiencies   substantially   higher   than  power  plant  and  selecting  the 

those   already  obtained.      Economies  are,  of  ment  for  the  rolling  stock 

course,  obtainable  through  reduction  in  weight  speed-time  and  energy  diagrams 

of  cars  and  equipment,  and  the  possibilities  proposed  schedule  speed, 


aa  =s 

vestment  in  present  equipment  is  so  large     at  oy  m                       ipment  for  the  average  con- 

it  is  rarely  practicable  to  wnte  off  the  cost  of  ab    ty  of  new  equ  pm                           S  ^ 

±rr  thfr,"=.%-',t  ~     •= 


efficiency  with  either  old  or  new  equipment.  as  '  ,The  e  weight,  including  average 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  the  present  time         [  1  1  ™e  avmge       g    .  ^ 

in  the  railway  field  is  a  better  understandmg  load    of  ;     yp  ca  q  ^  ^ 

of  the  principles  involved  in  the  attamment  m°to  ^^  schedule  speed. 
of  the   high   efficiencies  desired,   and  c  number  of  stops  p(.r  m,|e. 

practical   application   of  these   prmciples   to 


BjBtuc  *"•«"  SmmAI"  *"•  "'  '"* 


Company  A 


1_ 
8. 


—    • 

-      24 

75 
Len 

Wek 
—  Equ 

tops  per 
gthofR 
ihtofCai 
om:4-*. 

Mile 
tn    754. 
-Loaded 
VOWestu 

TFeet 
26  Tons 
igh.Motoi 

—  • 

A 
Gt 
Li 
'S        4. 

^ 

'eroge  b 
vr  Katie 
w/  Tar 
40KW.-I 
ACC.& 

\  Le 

'oltage 
15:57- 
gent  T 
Irs.  per 
Braking 
igthof^ 
•NoCoc. 

550 
?6"Diam.Wheets 
inck 

'  I.7M.PH.RS. 
Stop  7Sec. 

Speed  in  Miles  per  H 

0  «k  •  «*  *3  *  6 

/ 

g 

\" 

•JJL 

1 

'Averag 

'Sched 

Speed  1 

40M.Rt 

!\ 

rf 

s? 

-~ 

—     — 

\         i^ 

I-* 

*    v 

I     t 

1 

.' 

\| 

$ 

10          /5          20         2 

5         X         35         40        4!> 

Time  in  Seconds 


Company  B 


SStop 
Lengtl 
Weight 

T  of  Run  1056  Feet 
of  Car  Loaded  2}Tons 
•  Double#93-AWestingh. 

e  Voltage   50O 
Tangent  Track 
'W-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 
r  Braking  0.75M.KH.PS. 
h  of  Stop  9.5  Sec. 
Wo  Coasting- 

I" 

Equipir 
GearK. 
Avera^ 

2.672h 
Accel,  t 

I 

^ 

\ 

y 

Sched.  Speffa\. 

10M.KH. 

/ 

\ 

4 

/ 

/ 

\ 

\!T 

ftl 

_/ 

~      ^           K)          20         30 

40           50          60          70          80           ft 

Time  in  Seconds 


Figure  1 

Speed-Time  and  Power-Time  Graphs  for  No-Coasting  Conditions 


Length  of  StopConstant  7Sec 
Length  of  Run  7543  Feet 
Coasting  Rate  QjiM.PH.RS. 


fffr-      K 


s. 


10          15         ^         7?         Jo         35         40 7: 

Time  in  Seconds 


Acceleration  in  M.fH.RS. 


Coasting -%  of SchedJime 


10  20          30          40          SO          60          TO          80         SO 

Time  in  Seconds 


Figure  2 

Speed-Time  and  Power-Time  Graphs  for  Several  Rates  of  Acceleration 


M- 


120 


AcceleratbnConstant  1.7/HfHJS 
LengttiofStopConstant  7 Sec. 
Length  of  Run  754.3  Feet 
""  Coast!ngRate0.llMmPS. 


IX 


-_     20       25        30       35       40        43 
Time  in  Seconds 


ga 


Braking  Rate  in  M.PHP5 
Coasting-%ofSched.Time 


KW.-Hrs.  per  Cor  Mile 
KW.-Hrs.Sawd with  Coos 
%  Decrease  in  Power 

Acceleration  Constant  0.75  M.f UPS 
Length  of  StopConstant  ff.sSfe. 
Length  of  Run  1056  Feet 
Coasting  Rate  O.llMfH.PS. 


Time'in 


Figure  3 

•Speed-Time  and  Power-Time  Graphs  for  Several  Rates  of  Braking 


120 
£00 

|« 
u> 

Eeo 
8. 

1^ 

20 
0 

24 

s_ 
£20 

I* 

(D 

1* 

•D 

(L) 

&* 

(0 
4 

fi 

i»y^ 

Coastlr 
KW.-Hr* 

of  Stop  in  Seconds   6.5 
g-%ofSched.Time  I8JJ7 
i  per  Car  Mile         ISX 
Sa'/sd  with  Coasting  CL640 
it  Power  Saved    \j5AS 
.    Accel.  &  Braking 
^~  RatesConstant  1. 
~^^Length  of  Run  75- 
^Coasting  Rate  0.1 
" 

6:^ 

2SJ 

use 

1855 
BB 

ad 

Ufi 

MJ> 

i5 

5/.S5 
30? 

x<7a? 

^.fij 

^WJ 
^ 
WS 

'KW.-tirs 
PerCe 

&'5Sf 

X 

-^= 

_//£^; 
~K£%K 

1 

4 

B 

'A'/erag, 

'Sched. 

Speed  1 

40M.KI1 

% 

\ 
K 

3 

/ 

^\ 
1 

n 

\ 

If 

It 
1^ 

7! 

/ 

| 

; 

*« 
*i 

1 

5         10         15         20        25        30        35  "  40   ' 
Time  in  Seconds 

45 

175 


150 


-     35 


25 


30 


0—      ff 


Length  of  Stop  in  Seconds 
Coasting-%  of  Sched  Time 
K  W.-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 

'  KW.-Hrs.Saued  with  Coasting  0.337  0472  0.569  f  £54 
%  Decrease  in  Power 


Accel.8  Braking  RaiesConstant  0.75MMKS. 
'    Length  of  Run  1056  Feet 
Coasting  Rate  ai/M.PHP5. 


Id      ~w      jo      4q      J5      W      To      e3     w 
Time  in  Seconds 


Figure  4 

Speed-Time  and  Power-Time  Graphs  for  Several  Durations  of  Stop 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  [3 

[  4  ]  The  average  length  of  a  run    that  i*  T^  r> 

5280ft.  divided  by  the  number  of  steps'  per  mil  '  Un^^T  ""  ""^  """""P*-  '• 

[  5  ]  The  average  schedule  time  of  a  run  That  '^"-hours  per  car-mile  for  a  schedule 

is,   the  time  required   to  cov^r  the  avele  ?"dof  ^'^hourwith  a  23-ton  car,  five 

length  of  a  run  at  the  average  schedule  3  ^J?^,™*  *  !**>  o(  "ine  ^  "ne-half 


including  the  time  consumed  ii 

average  stop  'raKmg»  u''>  miles  P"  hour  per  second  is 

[6]  The  average  trolley-wire  voltage.  Ah Tease  for "Casting conditions i, 

[  7  ]  The   average   gradient   and   degree  of 
curvature  of  line. 

With  the  above  data  in  hand  for  two  typical  Factors  Affecting  Energy  Input 


J       .      :: 

affect  economical  car  operation.    The  studies      equipment,  of  given  gear  ratio,  at  I  give 
have  been  made  for  level  and  tangent  track,  but      average  schedule  speed  with  a  given  aver 
the  several  factors  shown  will  remain  in  the      number  of  stops  per  mile  and  a  given  averas 
same  relative  proportions  if  modified  to  meet      trolley  voltage  is  affected  solely  by  the  fol- 
the  condition  of  average  gradient  and  degree  of     lowing  factors:  The  duration  of  acceleration 
curvature.  Each  study  embraces  a  series  of  six,-      the  duration  of  braking,  and  the  duration  of 
teen  diagrams  and  these  have  been  reproduced      stops.     It  will  be  noted  that  all  of  these  are 
in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  ready  comparison,      time-element  factors.  The  effects  of  the  varia- 

Each  study  begins  with  the  "no-coasting"  tions  in  these  elements  are  illustrated  in  Figs. 
conditions  for  the  case  in  hand.  These  com-  1  to  6,  in  the  Company  A  and  Company  B 
prise  the  minimum  equal  rates  of  "straight  diagrams. 

line"  acceleration  and  of  braking  which  will  Fig.  1  has  already  been  explained.  Fig.  2 
enable  the  car  to  cover  the  required  distance  shows  how  coasting  can  be  increased  and  power 
in  the  length  of  time  corresponding  to  the  aver-  saved  by  increasing  the  rate  and  decreasing 
age  schedule  speed.  The  straight-line  accelera-  the  duration  of  acceleration.  Fig.  3  shows 
tion  is  that  which  is  determined  by  the  rate  of  how  similar  results  can  be  produced  by  in- 
cutting  out  the  starting  resistance.  After  the  creasing  the  rate  of  braking.  Fig.  4  shows  how 
starting  resistance  is  all  cut  out  the  car  contin-  slight  decreases  in  the  duration  of  stop  permit 
ues  to  accelerate  at  a  constantly  reducing  rate  increased  coasting  and  decreased  power  con- 
as  the  motor  counter  electromotive  force  rises,  sumption.  The  results  illustrated  in  the  pre- 
For  the  no-coasting  there  is  a  definite  energy  ceding  figures  are  exhibited  in  Fig.  5  in  con- 
consumption,  which  can  be  readily  calculated  venient  form  for  study  and  show  the  relation 
from  the  voltage,  current  and  duration  of  the  of  per  cent  coasting  to  per  cent  energy-  saving 
"power  on"  period.  by  the  three  individual  methods  of  saving 

Fig.    1,   Company  A   case,   shows  the  no-  energy,  that  is,  increasing  the  rate  of  accelera- 
coasting  conditions  for  a  754.3-ft.  run  under  tion,  increasing  the  rate  of  braking  and  de- 
conditions  existing  in  that  city,  while  Fig.  1,  creasing  the  duration  of  stops. 
Company  B  case,  shows  the  no-coasting  con-  ratio  of  per  cent  coasting  to  per  cent 
ditions  for  a  1056-ft.  run.     In  the  first  case,  saving,  that   is,  the   saving  which   could 
4.14  kilowatt-hours  per  car-mile  are  required  expected  from  suitable  combine 
for  a  26-ton  car  making  a  schedule  speed  of  11.4  three  factors,  is  also  indicated  m  I 
miles  per  hour  with  seven  stops  per  mile.  To  do  curve  might  be  termed  the     co 
this  without  coasting  requires   1.7  miles  per  acteristic"  for  this  partic 
hour  per  second  as  the  rate  of  acceleration  and  suits  of  combining  all  of  the 
of  braking.  The  length  of  stop  is  seven  seconds,  tribute  to  energy  saving  are  i 


Company  A 


Company  B 


Length  of  Run  7543 Feet 
Schedule  Speed  il.40M.RH 


10          ?0          X         40          50          60         70          00          90         TOO 

Rsr  Cent  Coasting  Referred  io  Schedule  Time 


IS) 


I 

<  . 


ff—        0 


Length  of  Run  1056  Feet 
Schedule  Speed  /OM.PH. 


X         40         50         60          TO         SO         90        100 

FterCent  Coasting  Referred  to  Schedule  Time 


.-  Figure  5 

Curves  Showing  the  Relation  of  Power  Saving  to  Per  Cent  Coasting 


fa-Cent  m-Hrs.  VfUn.  Vtotr 
toasting  'jgrMile  Saved  Saved 


Length  of  Run  754.3 Feet 
Sched.Speed  il.40M.PH. 
Coasting  Rtite  ailM.PH.PS. 


I71r-      35 


IS  1$  2Q          25 }0          Ji 40          45 

Time  in  Seconds 


Length  of  Run  1056  Feet 
Sched.Speed  IOM.PH. 
Coasting  Rate  O.IIM.PH.P.S. 


40          50          60          70          80         90 

Time  in  Seconds 


Figure  6 

Speed-Time  and  Power-Time  Graphs  for  Several  Rates  of  Acceleration  and  Braking  and  Durations  of  Stop 


Length  of  Stop 
Axd&Braking  I.5M.PH.P5.      > 
Coasting  tote  ailM.PH.PS.     ' 
C 


30         40          50         60         70          80         90 

Time  in  Seconds 


Figure  7 

Speed-Time  and  Power-Time  Graphs  for  Several  Numbers  of  Stops  Per  Mile 


KW.-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 
KW.-Hrs.Saved  with  Coasting 
%  Decrease  in  Power 


10         ?0 30         40         50         60 

Ffer  Cent  Coasting  Referred  to  Schedule  Time 
i          i          i          L, ±,  ^j- 


90 


as     to     is      ir 

KW-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 


10  SO          30          4)          50          W 70          80         90 

Per  Cent  Coasting  Referred  to  Schedule,  Time 


IS        75       zo       75       Jo       Js       40       4.5 
KW.-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 

Figure  8 

Curves  Showing  Relation  of  Stops  Per  Mile  to  Energy  Consumption  and  per  Cent  Coasting,  and  Per  Cent  Coasting  to  Power  Saving 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  (331 

A  study  of  the  diagrams  mentioned  above  Up  to  this  point  the  number  of  stops  per 

demonstrates  the  following  as  the  effects  of  mile  has  been  taken  as  constant 

variation    in    these    time-element    factors. of  step  is  to  consider  the  practical  conditions 

acceleration,  braking  and  duration  of  stop  on  arising  from  a  change  in  this  quantity.    Figs. 

r  iPi°^Lr  mpUt-:  7  and  8  of  both  ComPany  A  and  Company  B 

Lne  maximum  energy  input  and  maxi-  diagrams,  have  been  prepared  to  show  these 

mum  speed  occur  when  these  factors  are  such  effects.   The  no-coasting  conditions  have  been 

as  to  permit  "no-coasting  time."  changed  so  as  to  permit  the  original  schedule 

[  2  ]  The  energy  input  and  the  maximum  speeds  to  be  maintained  with  somewhat  more 

speed  both  decrease  as  the  time  of  acceleration  than  eight  stops  per  mile  in  each  case.    In  the 

is  decreased,  that  is,  as  the  rate  of  acceleration  Company  A  case  this  proved  to  be  2  miles  per 

is  increased.    Obviously  the  limitation  for  the  hour  per  second  and  in  the  Company  B  case  \% 

rate  of  acceleration,  within  limits  of  motor  miles  per  hour  per  second  for  acceleration  and 

equipment,  are  the  slipping  of  the  wheels  on  braking  rates.  The  results  are  shown  in  Fig.  8, 

the  one  hand  and  the  comfort  of  the  passen-  in  the  two  sets  of  diagrams, 

gers  on  the  other.    In  practice  the  discomfort  Analysis  of  these  results  shows  that  by  util- 

of  the  passengers  results  more  from  irregularity  izing  the  time-element  factors  of  acceleration, 

than  rapidity  of  acceleration.  braking  and  duration  of  stop  on  any  selected 

[  3  ]  The  energy  input  and  the  maximum  basis,  the  maximum  number  of  stops  per  mile 
speed  attained  both  decrease  as  the  time  of  is  obtained  with  the  condition  of  no-coasting 
braking  is  decreased,  that  is,  as  the  rate  of  time,  with  corresponding  maximum  power  in- 
braking  is  increased.  The  limitations  of  put  and  maximum  speed  attained.  The  energy 
braking  are  the  skidding  of  the  wheels  and  the  input  and  maximum  speed  attained  both  de- 
comfort  of  the  passengers.  Here  also  the  dis-  crease,  and  the  coasting  time  increases,  as  the 
comfort  of  the  passengers  results  more  from  ir-  number  of  stops  per  mile  is  decreased.  Another 
regular  than  rapid  braking.  important  deduction  is  that  the  increased  per- 

[  4  ]  The  energy  input  and  maximum  speed  centage  of  coasting  is  practically  proportional 
attained  both  decrease  as  the  time  consumed  to  the  decrease  in  energy  consumed, 
in  the  stop  is  decreased.    The  practical  limi- 
tation for  energy  saving  at  this  point  depends  Re]ation  of  Schedule  Speed  to  Power 
upon  the  facilities  for  boarding  and  alighting,  ^  Platform  Expense 
the  alertness  of  the  conductor  as  to  signals 

and  the  alacrity  of  the  motorman  in  obeying  The  next  step  for  consideration  is 

or  in  even  anticipating  such  signals.  paramount   in  the  minds  , 

transportation  managers,  namely,  t 
termining  the  most  efficient  schedule  speeds 

Relation  of  Energy  Input  The  soiution  Of  this  problem  can  be  found  by 

to  Coasting  Time  the  methods  previously  used.     Figs.  ' 


A  most  important  condusion  from  the  stud-  in  the  two  ser£  of  diagrams 

ies  up  to  this  point,  deduced  from  the  data  pare It >  in  ,cate      e  ^ ut  on 

shown  in  Fig.  5,  is  that  as  the  t-me-e  eme  t  fo, ^    typ <^™^          ^ 

factors  of  acceleration,  braking  and  duration  g                                         duration  of 

of  stop,  are  varied,  the  corresponding  energy  the  pr  ced  ng ca e bu t  v ry,^^  ^  ^ 

consumption  is  in  inverse  proportion    o  the  >o  as  to  g       g                   ^  ^^ 

coasting   time.      These   time-element   factors  tops pe rmrte,  *ap«o,  ^  ^  ^  ^ 

solely  and  only  can  affect  the  energy  input  typ          ^  with  (he  time^|emcnt 

required    to    operate   a    given    car    and    n  ine                  ,       ion    braking  and  duration 

equipment   for   given   conditions  of  schedu e  f^™%™  an'y  selected  basis,  and  a 

speed,  with  an  average  number  of  stops  per  "PJ          numbe/of  stops  per  mile,  the 
mile,  etc. 


Company  A 


Company  B 


5ched.5ptrtriM.KH. 

%Decrease  in  SchedSpeed 
Coastvig-%of5ched.  Tune 


I3MI3JJ  12*0 1096  AX 

ISO  10.14  21.05  »3C 

s£5  51.00  fix  nn 


KW-Hrs.  Saved 
with  Coasting 


nPower 

LengthofRun  lOXfixt 
LengthofStop  TSeconds 
AcctBraking  2M.PH.PS. 
Coasting  Rate  0.1  IM.PH.PS. 


60  Time  in  Seconds 
er  Cor  Mite 


%Dfcrease  in  SchedSpeed 
Cca$ting-%ctSehed  Time 
KW.-Hrs.per -Car Mile 


<#?  13.10  2336  S5.S 
17.28  SS.25t&S8T&2i 


Klt-hnSaved  with  Coasting 


%DecmoseinPbwer 

LengthofRun  /TSOFeet 
LengthofStop  lOSeconds 
Aec.&Bnaking  I.5M.PH.PS 
Coasting  Ki/e  0./IM.PKPS. 


grams  Showing  Operating  Conditions       )    — >.  _.    f 

for  Several  Schedule  Speeds,  with  >    r  IprilTP  9  •< 

Five  Stops  Per  Mile  J    Xi6"JV^    ( 


SO      96  Time  in  Seconds 
20KW-HraperCarMile 

Diagrams  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

for  Several  Schedule  Speeds,  with 

Three  Stops  Per  Mile 


Sched.5peedinM.RH. 

%Decreasein  Sched.Speed 

Coasting-%  of  Sched  Time 

KW.-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 

with  Coasting 

%  Decrease  in  Power 

LengthofRun  IOS6Feet 
Length  of  Stop  8  Seconds 
AcaSBraking  I.SM.PH.P5.  _ 
Coasting  Rate  0.11  M.PH.PS. 


?9J2  45.65  W21  TOM  77.08 
ZS7X.I45 17SJ  1.452  1217  1086 


KW.-Hrs.  Saved 

with  Coasting 
%Decrease 'm  Pbwer 

LengthofRun    754.3 Feet 
„  LengthofStop  f Seconds 
Acc.sBraking2M.PH.PS.  ~ 
CoastihgttiteailMPHPS 


48    Time  in  Seconds 
4U7KW.-Hrs.per  Cor  Mile 


Diagrams  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

for  Several  Schedule  Speeds,  with 

Seven  Stops  Per  Mile 


Diagrams  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

for  Several  Schedule  Speeds,  with 

Five  Stops  Per  Mile 


Sched.  Speed  in  M.PH 
%Decrease  r>  Sched.  Speed 
Coasting -%  of  Sched.  Time 
•  KW-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 
KW-Hrs.&nfdw;th  Coasting 
%Decrease  in  fbtrer 


JOS7  K129  SL47  8S7  7.34 
2£5  IOAI  18.92  T055 


4352  VS4  ?£I9  Z367  1896 
1.168  Z/J3 


LengthofRun  KSfeet 
Length  of  Stop  5  Seconds 
Ax.iBraking  2M.PH.PS. 
Coasting  Rate 


UO 


5       10       IS 

t5      2JO      2J> 


Diagrams  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

for  Several  Schedule  Speeds,  with 

Nine  Stops  Per  Mile 


r     $ 


150-30 

oljj 
I 


b^jo^ 


so 


25 


SchedSpeed  in  M.PH. 


JOM  9.88  9.42  8.70  7.94 


3M  SJ7S  ISM  21.90 
ZA6  JS.IOXt55Sf.lf 


17981.332 


751  IKS 


%Decrease  in  SchedSpeed 

Coasting -%of Sched  Time 
'  KW-Hrs.  per  Car  Mile 

KK-ttrs.$o*>d  with  Coasting 

%  Decrease  in  Power 

LengthofRun  58&6Feet 
LengthofStop  6 Seconds 
Ax.&Braklng  I.SM.PH.PS. 
Coasting  fate  0.11  Mf  UPS. 


}  Figure  11  { 


25      SO  Time  in  Seconds 
L7S     2M    2.25    Z50     2.75     300    JC^KW-Hr&perCcrMile 

Diagrams  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

for  Several  Schedule  Speeds,  with 

Ten  Stops  Per  Mile 


175 
Iff 

§u 

.S 


10       20       30       40       SO       60       70       80       SO 
Cxxasting  in  %  of  Schedule  Time 


5        0        15       2O       25      30       35 -    40       45 
Percent  Decnease  'n  Schedule  Speed 


Curves  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

Compared  with  No-Coasting  Conditions  with 

Five,  Seven  and  Ten  Stops  Per  Mile 


16 


v 


Coasting  in  %  of  Schedule  Tim^ 


SO       90 


}  Figure  12  { 


)  10        15       2O       25       30       35       40      45 

Ffercent  Decrease  in  Schedule  Speed 

Curves  Showing  Operating  Conditions 

Compared  with  No-Coasting  Conditions  with 

Three,  Five  and  Nine  Stops  Per  Mile 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 

maximum  schedule  speed  is  obtained  with  no-  mile.      By  combining  with  this  information 

coasting  time,  and  with  corresponding  maxi-  the  cost  of  energy  and  platform  labor  for  the 

mum  energy  input  case  in  hand  it  is  possible  to  put  the  study 

1  he  diagrams  show  further  that  energy  in-  upon  a  cost  basis. 

put  decreases  and  coasting  time  increases  as  In  Fig.  14  two  sets  of  operating  cost  curves 

the  schedule  speed  decreases,  and  that  the  per  are  plotted,  one  with  costs  plotted  against 

cent  decrease  in  energy  input  is  in  proportion  schedule   speeds   and   the   other   with   costs 

to  the  increase  in  per  cent  coasting.   It  should  plotted  against  per  cent  coasting.    These  are 

be  noted,   however,  that  the  curves  plotted  shown  on  the  basis  of  0.75  cent  per  kilowatt- 

for  per  cent  decrease  in  energy-input  referred  hour   energy   cost,   and   54   cents   per   hour 

to  per  cent  decrease  in  schedule  speeds  rise  platform  labor  cost  in  one  case  and  0.7  cent 

very   rapidly,   particularly  at   low  values  of  and  60  cents,  respectively,  in  the  other.    In 

these  quantities.     In  considering  an  increase  each  curve  there  is  a  minimum  value  which  is 

in  schedule  speeds,  therefore,  we  must  balance  obviously  the  best  one  for  the  given  number 

the   increased   cost   of  energy  with   the   de-  of  stops   per  mile.    In  order  to  emphasize 

creased  cost  of  platform  labor.  these  minimum  cost  values,  curves  are  drawn 

through  the  minimum  values  of  the  two  sets  of 

Figs.  13  to  15  in  Company  A  and  Company  curves  respectively. 

B  diagrams  have  been  prepared  to  show  the  In  Fig.  15  the  same  data  are  plotted  so  that 

relation  of  energy  consumption  in  kilowatt-  the  most  economical  schedule  speed  can  be 

hours  per  car-mile  to  per  cent  coasting  and  to  read  directly  for  any  desired  number  of  stops 

schedule  speeds;  the  relation  of  total  energy  and  per  mile  and  the  corresponding  per  cent  of 

platform  expense  to  schedule  speeds  and  the  coasting,  combined  power  and  platform  labor 

relation  of  total  energy  and  platform  expense  cost  and  energy  consumption  are  shown  by 

to  the  per  cent  coasting.  curves  plotted  against  number  of  stops  per 

The    curves    shown    in   these   figures   were  mile. 

plotted  from  data  tabulated  in  the  accompany-  Both  Fig.  14  and  15  show  that  when  the 

ing  tables  III,  IV,  V,  VI,  VII  and  VIII.  schedule  speeds  are  determined  with  relation 

to  economical   results,   coasting  must   result 

,-,  and  that  the  amount  of  coasting  which  corre- 

Coasting  as  a  Necessary  factor  sp0nds  to  the  most  economical  schedule  speed 

in  Economy  is  approximately  the  same  in  per  cent  over  a 

Figs.  13  to  15  summarize  all  that  has  gone  wide  range  in  the  number  of  stops  pe 
before  on  a  cost  basis.     It  is  obvious  that  a 

certain   amount   of  coasting  is  necessary  in  Energy  Input  a  Misleading  Measure 

any  schedule.     For  any  existing  or  adopted  Qf  Efficiency 

suiting.    The  method  for  the ^ohmon  of  th.s  seven     o         r  m ,  fcth^  ^  P  ^^ 

problem  is  shown  clearly  in  the  curves.  watt  n          v                            ^       c(at 

Fig.  13  contains  curves  which  form  a  sum-  sped  of  «£££££          the            in. 

mary  of  the  data  in  the  pleading  four  figures  era  ing  J*«^^  per  car.mile  with  a 

in  each  set  of  diagrams,  and  they  show  <  put  w -..                                  hour   Now  the 

nitely   the    relation   of   energy   consumpnon  schedu  e  spe  d  o 

to  per  cent  coasting  and  schedu  e  speed  re-  number  d  «  p    p 

spectively   for   three   numbers   of  stops   per  t,on, 


Company  A 


Company  B 


Zfl 


Per  Cent  Coasting  \40\40\40 
Number  of  Stops  per  Mile  \S\7\IO 
Ccmsp.KWrs.pereorMile  \2M\2.65\3.8 


"7       6       9        10       II       12       IS       14 

Schedule  Speed  in  Mites  per  Hour 


15      IS 


Htr  Cent  Coasting        \x\5O\x 
Number' of  Stops  per  Mite]  3  -  .5  I  S 

\I.68\2.I3\2JB2 
OrrespondingSchedSpeed 

From  figs.  %  10  and  I 'I 


d       //       72       75       74       s 
Schedule  5peed  in  Miles  per  Hour 


Curves  Showing  the 
Speed 


75 
Schedule 


lowing  the  Relation  of  Power  to  Schedule  )-•->.  -.  /,  f  Curves  Showing  the  Relation  of  Power  to  Sched 

and  Per  Cent  Coasting  for  Five,  Seven        >  ^  12UTC  1 J  •{         Speed  and  Per  Cent  Coasting  for  Three,  Five 
and  Ten  Stops  Per  Mile  J        &  and  Nine  Stops  Per  Mile 


'-3,0 


§&0 


as 


wo 


LLJZ5 


7.0 


>ds 


\ffil      Power  &CtperKW.-Hr.    \          . 
X-&    Platform  Expense  60Ct.perHr      ' 

U\  ~/ 


.  30,     40  r'     ~    _,  ~  _.  .- 
Coasting  m  %t  of  Scheduje  Time 

a     ^~    10  .  ii  "'ft     ft 
Schedule  Speed  h  Mites  per  Hour 


~80     30 


14     is 


Fbmer  }Ct.  per  KW-Hr.      Platform  Expense  SJCtpertir 
JStops per  Mile  —  —  — 

95topsperMile 


Stops 


o      // 
Schedule  Speed  in  Miles  per  Hour  * 

Curves  Showing  the  Relation  of  Power  and 

Platform  Expense  to  Per  Cent  Coasting  and 

Schedule  Speed,  for  Three,  Five  and  Nine 

Stops  Per  Mile 


60 


}55 


145 


3  55 


J* 


Ftwer  JsCtperKWHt:  PtatformEtp.  SOCtpfrfc 
For i.7a/05K>p5 per Mile,  LengthofStopis7,6t5Secjesp. 
-AxMBrakingKtrte  ZMfHJS.  Coasting/tote ailMfttfo 
rn.cfCarwHhAifer.Riss.U3od  XTons 


5       6        7       8       9       10 

Number  of  Stops  per  Mile 


.55 


150 


#1 


,45 


y 


3 

>, 
|J<S 


m  :§ 


J275 


C»  Z^ 

P  n^ 


OWS225 

3 


K 


2# 


!* 


^l§J 


PtiweriCt.perKW.-Hr.    Platform  ExpenseSKtpertt: 


Axels  Braking  Kbte  /.SMfHK 

CoastingRale  O.HMJ1HRS. 
WtofCar  with  Average 
Pass.Lcod  23  Tons 


Number  of  Stops  per  Mile 


Figure  IS 


Curves   Showing  the   Most  Economical   Schedule  Speed  and  Corresponding  Cost  and 
Energy  Consumption  for  Different  Numbers  of  Stops  Per  Mile 


Sched.Speedli.40MM 
Wt.  of  Car  with  Average  Load  26  Tons 
.  equipment:  4  *340  West'mghouse  Motors — 
Voltage  550 


The* 


Manufacturer^ 
MotorSpecificationsPermit 
TZAmp-atSOOVoHsforlHour.- 


40       SO   . 
Ftercent  Coasting 


Sched.Speed  OliKH. 
WtofCar  with Average  Load  HTons 

Equipment:  Double*9}-A  Wcstgh.Motors 

\foltage  50O 


Note;  The  Manufoctvr- 
er^MotorSpeciricaticns 
Guarantee  aConfnjous_ 
Capacity  of 

50Amp.at300Volts 
-46Amp.at400Vo/ts— 


15  .     20  f    25   ,   30 
Time  in  Secpnas 


10       20 
Percent 


JO  n%>      60       TO       60 
ting  Referred  to  Sched.  Time 


Figure  16 

Diagrams  of  Heating  Currents  Corresponding  to  Different  Operating  Conditions  Shown  in  Fig.  6 


[37] 


approxi- 


hour 


and 
the 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

are  representative  of  the  range  in  these  auant-i       A\A  +u 

ties  actually  encountered  X£*SSt     «nt±  7™±  ^2?  ^  '"< 

ot  non-rush-hour  and  rush-hour  conditions. 

For  the  above  enumerated  stops  per  mile 
and  corresponding  schedule  speeds,  motormen 
showing  coasting  records  of  40  per  cent  on  that 

equipment  are  all  operating  at  equal  actual      i^^oT^^^*^  ^ 
efficiency,  even  though  the  conditions  of  opera-      and  the  energy  input  I A  kilowattlurs 
tion  vary  widely,  as  enumerated.  The  coasting     mile, 
record    of   the    motorman,    therefore,    is   the 
correct  relative  measure  of  his  actual  efficiency     ^ 

for  variations  in  the  number  of  stops  per  mile  Coasting  the  Correct  Relative  Measure 
or  in  the  schedule  speed  that  must  necessarily  °f  Actual  Efficiency 

arise  in  practical  operation  The  actual  efficiency,  based  upon  the  inher- 

Un  the  other  hand,  the  measurement  of  ent  principles  involved  in  operating  any  given 
only  the  energy  input  of  the  car  is  an  incorrect  car  under  given  conditions,  is  dependent  upon 
and  misleading  measure  of  the  motorman's  the  effective  utilization  of  the  controlling 
actual  efficiency  where  the  number  and  dura-  time-element  factors. 

tion  of  stops  or  schedule  speeds  are  variable.  For  further  better  understanding  of  the 
Efficiency  based  on  such  power  measurement  factors  affecting  the  motorman's  actual  effi- 
means  nothing  unless  analyzed  in  reference  to  ciency  Fig.  17  has  been  prepared,  showing 
the  component  time-element  factors  controll-  speed-time  and  power  diagrams,  for  common 
ing  the  energy-input,  for  as  we  have  noted  in  variations  encountered  under  the  simplest 
the  illustrations  (opposite),  this  may  vary  from  conditions  of  operation,  i.e.,  a  constant  schedule 
2.4  kilowatt-hours  to  3.21  kilowatt-hours  per  speed,  with  assumed  equal  duration  of  stops 
car-mile,  although  the  true  efficiency  of  the  for  the  average  number  of  stops  per  mile. 
motorman  is  exactly  the  same.  In  Fig.  17,  seven  typical  runs,  numbered  1  to 

The  incorrectness  of  conclusions  based  upon  7,  are  shown,  the  number  of  stops  per  mile 
energy  measurements  where  the  number  and  being  either  five,  six  or  seven  and,  as  indicated, 
duration  of  stops  are  variable  is  further  illus-  each  stop  being  of  eight  seconds'  duration. 
trated  by  reference  to  Figs.  4  and  8  of  Company  It  is  to  be  noted  from  Fig.  17  that,  for  like 
B  diagrams.  In  Fig.  4,  with  10  miles  per  hour  number  of  stops  per  mile,  the  per  cent  coasting 
schedule  speed,  five  stops  per  mile  of  eight  increases  and  the  power  input  decreases,  de- 
seconds'  duration  each,  and  acceleration  and  pendent  upon  the  increase  in  acceleration  and 
braking  respectively  %  miles  per  hour  per  sec- 
ond, the  per  cent  coasting  is  seen  to  be  21^  and 
the  energy  input  2.1  kilowatt-hours  per  car- 
mile.  In  Fig.  8  with  the  same  schedule  speed, 
7.18  stops  per  mile  of  the  same  duration  and 
twice  the  rate  of  acceleration  and  braking,  the 
per  cent  coasting  is  seen  to  be  42  and  the  energy 
input  2.1  kilowatt-hours  per  car-mile. 

Based  on  power  input  measurement  the 
performance  of  the  motormen  is  exactly  the 
same  in  the  two  cases,  yet  everyone  knows 
that  the  additional  stops  in  the  second  case 
require  additional  energy.  By  the  efficient 
utilization  of  the  time-element  factors  of  ac- 
celeration and  braking  the  motorman  in  tli 
second  case  used  the  same  energy  input  as 


Wt.ofCar>AtLood 

-23Tbns   .      RunNrter 


Time  in  Seconds 

Figure  17 


Tables  III  to  VIII — Analysis  of  Relation  of  Energy  and  Platform  Expense 

Based  on  variable  schedule  speed  with  efficient  coasting,  determined 
from  time-speed  and  energy  diagrams.     Track   level    and    tangent 


Company  A  —  Motor  Car  Without  Trailer 

Weight  with  average  load,  tons  26 
Gear  ratio  15:  57 
Line  voltage  550 

Company  B—  Motor  Car  Without  Trailer 

Weight  with  average  load,  tons.  ...                                                                         23 
Gear  ratio  19.  68 

Wheel  diameter,  inches  26 
Rate  of  acceleration  and  braking,  m.p.h.p.s  2 
Energy  coat,  cent  per  kilowatt-hour  0.7 
Platform  labor  cost,  cents  per  hour  60 

Line  voltage  500 
Wheel  diameter,  inches  33 
Rate  of  acceleration  and  braking,  m.p.h.p.s  ....                                                  15 
Energy  cost,  cent  per  kilowatt-hour  0  75 
Platform  labor  cost,  cents  per  hour  54 

Table  III 

Table  VI 

Stops  per  mile  3  |  Duration  of  stop,  seconds  10 

Duration  of  stop,  seconds  .•  7 

Combined 
Schedule                                                         Cost  of           Platform        Power  and 
Speed,       Per  Cent  of      Kilowatt-           Power            Expense          Platform 
Miles          Coasting            Hours            per  Car-          per  Car-          Expense 
per  Hour        Possible      per  Car-Mile    Mile,  Cents    Mile,  Cents       per  Car- 
Mile,  Cents 
9.84             78.25                0.90                 0.67                 5.49                 6  16 
11.67             68.88                1.04                 0.78                 4.63                 5.41 
13.34             55.25                1.26                 0.94                 4.05                 4.99 
14.50             39.88                1.46                 1.09                 3.72                 4  81 
14.63             37.28                1.56                 1.17                 3.69                 4.86 
15.35             None                2.21                 1.66                 3.52                 5.18 

Combined 
Schedule                                                      Cost  of          Platform       Power  and 
Speed,       Per  Cent  of      Kilowatt-          Power           Expense         Platform 
Miles          Coasting            Hours            per  Car-          per  Car-          Expense 
per  Hour        Possible      per  Car-Mile   Mile,  Cents    Mile,  Cents       per  Car- 
Mile,  Cents 
9.00            77.70               1.35                0.95                6.67                7.62 
10.90             65.60                1.68                 1.18                 5.50                 6.68 
12.40             51.00                2.08                 1.46                 4.84                 6.30 
13.31             31.65                2.66                 1.86                 4.51                 6.37 
13.80             None               3.53                2.47                4.35                6.82 

With  15.35  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  .  .33.92  kw.-hr. 
With  14.50  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  .  .21.  17  kw.-hr. 
Excess  power  per  car-hour  for  15.35  m.p.h.  over  14.50  m.p.h.  is.  .  12.75  kw.-hr. 
Or  excess  power  for  15.35  m.p.h.  over  power  for  14.50  m.p.h.  is.  .  60.  2     per  cent 
But  15.35  m.p.h.  schedule  speed  in  excess  of  14.50  m.p.h.  ia  5.9     per  cent 

With  13.80  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  energy  per  car-hour  is.  .  .48.71  kw.-hr. 
With  12.40  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  energy  per  car-hour  is.  .  .25.  79  kw.-hr. 
Excess  power  per  car-hour  for  13.80  m.p.h.  over  12.40  m.p.h.  is.  .  .22.92  kw.-hr. 
Or  excess  power  for  13.80  m.p.h.  _over  energy  for  12.40  m.p.h.  is.  .  .88.8   per  cent 

Seventeen  cars  at  15.35  m.p.h.  gives  260.95  car-miles 
using  .                     576  64  kw  -hr  per  hour 

Nine  cars  at  13.80  m.p.h.  make  124.20  car-miles,  using.  .438.39  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Ten  cars  at  12.40  m.p.h.  make  124.00  car-miles,  using.  .  .  257.  90  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Saving  in  kilowatt-hour  output  per  hour  for  ten  cars  at 
12.40  m.p.h.  over  nine  cars  at  13.80  m.p.h.  schedule 
speed,  both  making  approximately  the  same  car-miles 
and  hence  running  on  the  same  headway,  is  180.  49  kw.-hr.  per  hour 

Eighteen  cars  at  14.50  m.p.h.  gives  261.00  car-miles 
using  381  06  kw  -hr  per  hour 

Saving  in  kilowatt-hour  output  per  hour  for  eighteen 
cars  at  14.50  m.p.h.  over  seventeen  cars  at  15.35 
m.p.h.  schedule  speed;  both  making  approximately 
the  same  car-miles,  and  hence  running  on  the  same 
headway,  is  195  5g  kw  -hr  per  hour 

Or  as  offset  to  investment  for  one  additional  car  there  is  required  an  investment 
for  180  kw.  in  power  plant  and  distribution  system. 

Or  as  offset  to  investment  for  one  additional  car  there  is  required  an  investment 
for  195  kw.  in  power  plant  and  distribution  system. 

Table  IV 

Stops  per  mile  7 

Table  VII 

Stops  per  mile  5  |  Duration  of  stop,  seconds  8 

Combined 
Schedule                                                      Cost  of          Platform       Power  and 
Speed,       Per  Cent  of      Kilowatt-          Power           Expense         Platform 
Miles           Coasting            Hours            per  Car-          per  Car-          Expense 
per  Hour       Possible      per  Car-Mile   Mile,  Centa    Mile,  Cents       per  Car- 

8.03            75.50               1.46                1.02                7.47              ^lls?11** 
9.89             63.45                1.89                 1.32                 6.07                 7.39 
11.42             43.35                2.52                 1.76                 5.25                 7  01 
12.06             25.55                3.11                 2.18                 4.97                 7  15 
12.35             None               3.99                2.79                4.86                7.65 

Combined 
Schedule                                                         Cost  of           Platform        Power  and 
Speed,       Per  Cent  of      Kilowatt-           Power            Expense          Platform 
Miles          Coasting            Hours            per  Car-          per  Car-          Expense 
per  Hour        Possible      per  Car-Mile   Mile,  Cents    Mile,  Cents       per  Car- 

8.00             77.08                1.09                 0.82                 6.75               ^'.H* 
9.23             70.10                1.22                 0.91                 5.85                 6.76 
10.58             59.27                1.45                 1.09                 5.10                 6.19 
11.61             45.65                1.76                 1.32                 4.65                 5  97 
12.05             36.80                1.96                 1.47                 4.48                 5  95 
12.41             28.32                2.14                 1.60                 4.35                 5.95 
12.79              None                2.87                 2.15                 4.22                 6.37 

With  12.35  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  ..  .49.27  kw.-hr. 
With  11.42  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is  ...  .28.  78  kw.-hr. 
Excess  power  per  car-hour  for  12.35  m.p.h.  over  11.42  m.p.h.  is.  .  .20.  49  kw.-hr. 
Or  excess  power  for  12.35  m.p.h.  over  power  for  11.42  m.p.h.  is.  .  .71.  2  per  cent 
But  12.35  m.p.h.  schedule  speed  in  excess  of  11.42  m.p.h.  is                  81  percent 

With  12.79  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  .  .36.71  kw.-hr. 
With  12.05  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  .  .23.62  kw.-hr. 
Excess  power  per  car-hour  for  12.79  m.p.h.  over  12.05  m.p.h.  is  .  .  13.  09  kw.-hr. 
Or  excess  power  for  12.79  m.p.h.  over  power  for  12.05  m.p.b  .  is  .  .  55  .  4     per  cent 
But  12.79  m.p.h.  schedule  speed  in  excess  of  12.05  m.p.h.  is  6  1    per  cent 

Ten  cars  at  12.35  m.p.h.  gives  123.5  car-miles  using  492.76    kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Eleven  cars  at  11.42  m.p.h.  gives  125.6  car-miles  using.  316.  56    kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Saving  in  kilowatt-hour  output  per  hour  for  eleven  cars 
at  11.42  m.p.h.  over  ten  cars  at  12.35  m.p.h.,  schedule 
speed,  both  making  approximately  the  same  car- 
miles  and  hence  running  on  the  same  headway  is  176.20  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Or  as  offset  to  investment  for  one  additional  car  there  is  required  an  investment 
for  176  kw.  in  power  plant  and  distribution  system. 

Seventeen  cars  at  12.79  m.p.h.  gives  217.43  car-miles 
using  624  07  kw  -hr  per  hour 

Eighteen  cars  at  12.05  m.p.h.  gives  216.90  car-miles 
using  425  16  kw  -hr  per  hour 

Saving  in  kilowatt-hour  output  per  hour  for  eighteen 
cars  at  12.05   m.p.h.  over  seventeen    cars  at  12.79 
m.p.h.  schedule  speed;  both  making  approximately 
the  same  car-miles,  and  hence  running  on  the  same 
headway,  is  198.91  kw.-hr.  per  hour 

Table  V 

Stops  per  mile  10 
Duration  of  stop,  seconds  5 

for  198  kw.  in  power  plant  and  distribution  system. 

Table  VIII 

Stops  per  mile  9  |  Duration  of  stop,  seconds  6 

Combined 
Schedule                                                      Cost  of          Platform       Power  and 
Speed,       Per  Cent  of      Kilowatt-           Power            Expense          Platform 
Miles          Coasting            Hours            per  Car-          per  Car-          Expense 
per  Hour        Possible      per  Car-Mile   Mile,  Cents    Mile,  Cents       per  Car- 

7-34            71.40               1.90                1.33                8.17          ^.fif"* 
8.57             60.40                2.37                 1.66                 7.00                 8.66 
9.47             48.25                2.82                 1.97                 6.34                 8.31 
10.29             26.85                3.78                 2.65                 5.83                 8.48 
10.57             None                4.95                3.47                 5.68                 9.15 

Combined 
Schedule                                                         Cost  of           Platform        Power  and 
Speed,       Per  Cent  of      Kilowatt-           Power            Expense          Platform 
Miles          Coasting            Hours            per  Car-          per  Car-          Expense 
per  Hour        Possible      per  Car-Mile    Mile,  Cents     Mile,  Cents       per  Car- 
Mile,  Cents 
7.84             61.15                1.77                 1.33                 6.89                  8.22 
8.70             50.55                2.13                 1.60                 6.21                  7.81 
9.42             37.90                2.55                 1.91                 5.73                  7.64 
9.88             22.46                3.08                 2.31                 5.46                 7.77 
10.04             None                3.88                 2.91                 5.38                 8.29 

With  10.57  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  .  .52.32  kw.-hr. 
With  9.47  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.  .  .26.70  kw  -hr 
Excess  power  per  car-hour  for  10.57  m.p.h.  over  9.47  m.p.h.  is.  .25.62  kw.-hr. 
Or  excess  power  for  10.57  m.p.h.  over  power  for  9.47  m.p.h.  is.  .9.5.9  percent 
But  10.57  m.p.h.  schedule  speed  in  excess  of  9.47  m.p.h.  is                   116  per  cent 

With  10.04  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.    .38.96  kw.-hr. 
With  9.42  m.p.h.  schedule  speed,  total  power  per  car-hour  is.    .24.02  kw.-hr. 
Excess  power  per  car-hour  for  10.04  m.p.h.  over  9.42  m.p.h.  is.    .14.94  kw.-hr. 
Or  excess  power  for  10.04  m.p.h.  over  power  for  9.42  m.p.h.  is.    .62.2     per  cent 
But  10.04  m.p.h.  schedule  speed  in  excess  of  9.42  m.p.h.  is  6.6     per  cent 
Fifteen   cars  at   10.04   m.p.h.   gives   150.60  car-miles 
using  584  .  40  kw.-hr.  per  hour 

Nine  cars  at  10.57  m.p.h.  gives  95.13  car-miles  using  470.  88  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Ten  cars  at  9.47  m.p.h.  gives  94.70  car-miles  using  267.  10  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Saving  in  kilowatt-hours  output  per  hour  for  ten  cars  at 
9.47  m.p.h.  over  nine  cars  at  10.57  m.p.h.  schedule 
speed,  both  making  approximately  the  same  car-miles, 
and  hence  running  on  the  same  headway  is  203  .  88  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Or  as  offset  to  investment  for  one  additional  car  there  is  required  an  investment 
for  203  kw.  in  power  plant  and  distribution  system. 

Sixteen  cars  at  9.42  m.p.h.  gives  150.72  car-miles  using.384.32  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Saving  in  kilowatt-hour  output  per  hour  for  sixteen  cars 
at  9.  42  m.p.h  over  fifteen  cars  at  10.04  m.p.h.  sched- 
ule speed;  both  making  approximately  the  same  car- 
miles,  and  hence  running  on  the  same  headway,  is.  .200.08  kw.-hr.  per  hour 
Or  as  offset  to  investment  for  one  additional  car  there  is  required  an  investment 
for  200  kw.  in  power  plant  and  distribution  system. 

[39] 


Table  I 

TABULATION  or  RATH>  STANDING  or  MOTOKM.M 
OPBUTIONS  AS.  SHOWN  .?  TH»^ 


1.  Basis 

2.  Baste 

'    *  "»   ""•vn«  MS  OF  JTII 
J    ttmmtm 

L  17 

Actual 
Efficiency 
A  —  Par 
B—  Par 

Per  Cent 
Coasting 
A—  «4.3 
B—  64.1 

».*jmMim 

Power 
Input 
A—-Par 
B—  Ml  per  cm 

A—  l.Slt 
B  —  Mil 

C—  Par 

C—  42.45 

below  par 
I>—»7.4  per  cent 

D—  1.1H 

D  —  11.4  per  cent 
below  par 

D—  42.45 

below  par 
F—  501  per  cent 

r—  I.MI 

E  —  43.5  per  cent 
below  par 
F—  5  0.1  per  cent 
below  par 
Q  —  5  3.  8  per  cent 
below  par 

B—  27.7 
F—  21.6 
0—0 

below  par 
C-*Mper«ot 
below  par 

below  par 
0—  m.J  per  cent 
below  par 

c-ow 

B—  «.»!• 

INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 

braking  rates.  Now,  assume  these  Runs  1  to  7 
are  made  respectively  by  motormen  A  to  G. 
Assume  further  that,  as  is  the  case  in  prac- 
tice, nothing  is  known  as  to  the  number  of 
stops  per  mile,  the  only  known  quantity  being 
the  schedule  speed.  Under  such  conditions 
suppose  the  performance  of  these  motormen 
on  their  respective  runs  to  be  checked,  on  the 
one  hand,  by  coasting  measurements  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  measurement  of  the  power 

input.  Which  method  of  checking  would  in-  compared  with  the  rated  standing  on  the  basis 
dicate  the  correct  relative  measure  of  the  re-  of  actual  efficiency;  the  discrepancies  being 
spective  motormen's  actual  efficiency?  that  though  the  actual  efficiency  of  motormen 

The  standing  rating  of  the  respective  motor-      A,  B  and  C  is  the  same,  the  rated  standing 
men  can  be  stated  as  follows:  on  the  basis  of  per  cent  coasting  differentiates 

[  1  ]  Basis  of  actual  efficiency.     Since  the      as  shown. 

best  efficiency  for  each  respective  number  of  This  differentiation  is  desirable,  for  results 
stops  per  mile  occurs  with  the  highest  rates  of  in  practical  operation  show  that  the  motorman 
acceleration  and  braking,  all  motormen  operat-  tends  to  accelerate  and  brake  at  rates  propor- 
ing  with  such  highest  rates  can  be  rated  as  tioned  to  the  traffic  requirements,  instead  of 
"Par"  and  the  remaining  motormen  rated  the  the  efficient  rates,  unless  his  operations  are 
"Per  cent  below  par,"  which  the  power  effectively  checked.  From  Fig.  17  it  is  to  be 
actually  used  exceeds  in  per  cent  the  power  noted  that  the  stops  per  mile  for  A  were  less 
which  would  have  been  used  had  the  highest,  than  for  B,  whose  stops  in  turn  were  less 
Par,"  rates  of  acceleration  and  braking  than  those  of  C.  The  tendency  in  practice 


or 


been  utilized.  would  have  been  for  B  to  operate  less  effi- 

[  2  ]  Basis  of  per  cent  coasting  determined  ciently  than  C,  and  A  even  less  than  B  in 

from  the  measurement  of  the  coasting  time.  reference  to  the  controlling  time-element  fac- 

[  3  ]  Basis    of    power    input    measured    by  tors.    Therefore,  the  psychological  and  prac- 

meter,    the    motorman    using   the    minimum  tical  effect  is  good  if  A  and  B  are  given  credit, 

power  input  (kilowatt-hours  per  car  mile)  being  in  their  rated  standing,  as  is  done  by  the  per 

rated  as  "Par"  and  the  remaining  motormen  cent  coasting  rating,  for  their  efficient  opera- 

being  rated  the  "Per  cent  below  par"  which  tion  under  the  easier  traffic  conditions. 
their  respective  values  of  kilowatt-hours  per 


car-mile  actually  used  exceed  in  per  cent  the 
minimum  or  "Par"  value  of  kilowatt-hours  per 


of    motorman's    index    number 


Economic  Advantages  of  the 

Skip-Stop  Plan 
The  enormous  advantages  to  the  public  :and 


o 
from   metered   measurements   of     the  railway  from  the  utihzation  of 


mile  used  by  such  motorman  to  the  average  of 
the  kilowatt-hours  per  car  mile  of  all  the  motor- 
men.  , 
Table   I   shows  a  tabulation  of  the  rated 

1  /-kM          ^Mf* 

standings   of  the   several   motorm 
respective  foregoing  basis  for  ratings. 

From  Table  I  it  is  to  be  noted  the  rat 
standing  of  the  respective  motormen,  base 
on  the  per  cent  coasting,  is  relatively  correct, 


Table  II 

SHOWING  GAINS  BT  RK>UCTION  IN  Nc 


uo»  or  Stow 


8Chedulfl 


Ml 
Ml 

77.'  37,«» 


PerCtet 
bHMM 

11.4  *••* 

7.M  I*-*' 

MJ 


•  Decrease. 


[40]  INCREASING   CAR   OPERATION    ECONOMIES 

seven  and  ten  stops  per  mile.     The  following  tion   and   analysis  of  speed-time    and   power 

table  shows  the  results  of  eliminating  three  diagrams  based  on  the  maximum  deviation  of 

stops  per  mile.  series  operation  with  maintenance  of  schedule 

Table  II  shows  that  the  reduction  from  ten  speeds  for  any  average  condition,  will  dispel 
to   seven    stops    per   mile    results    in    making  any  illusion  that  rheostatic  losses  may  more 
available  for  the  public  20.2  per  cent  more  than   offset   efficient  utilization  of  the  time- 
service,  with  20.2  per  cent  saving  in  time  due  element  factors  hereinbefore  discussed, 
to  increased  rapid  transit,  at  an  approximate 
additional  cost  of  only.  1.6  per  cent  to  the 

railway,  on  the  basis  of"4000  car-hours  opera-  Reduction  in  Demand  on  Generating 

tion  per  car  per  year.  Station  and  Distribution  System 

A  similar  study  of  Company  B  curves  shows 

that,  based  on  4000  hours  of  operation  per  car  ,  That  the  adoption  of  a  high  rate  of  accelera- 

per  year,  a  reduction  from  seven  to  five  stops  tlon   wl1     not   mcrease   the  .demand   on   <h,e 

per  mile  results  in  15.7  per  cent  more  available  fowerf  Plant>  substat,on  equipment,  etc     fol- 

service  for  the  public  with  15.7  per  cent  saving  lows,  from  the  fact  that  tbe  duratl°n  of  the 

in  time,  at  only  0.7  per  cent  additional  cost.  acceleration  current  and  the  required  average 

In  concluding  this  part  of  the  subject,  it  current  both  decreaf  as  the  rate  ,of  accjelera; 

should  be  noted  that  while  the  curves  in  Fig.  *lon  increases.   As  the  current  peaks  produced 

IS  show  the  most  economical  schedule  speeds  bl  the  different  cars  occur  at  different  times, 

for  given  numbers  of  stops  per  mile,  together  wben  the  diversity  factor  f  ^e  usual  number 

with  the  corresponding  most  economical  energy  °f  cars  operated  is  considered  it  is  apparent 

and  platform  expense,  based  on  given  energy  that  on'y  *]*   sum  of  tbe   reduced   averaSe 

and  platform  labor  costs  and  for  a  given  equip-  cur/ents  ls  drawn  fro,m  tbe  Power  Plant' 

ment,  similar  curves  can  be  determined  and  As   generating  and    substation   equipment 

constructed  for  any  combination  of  expense  ratmSs  are  usuallv  based  °"  hourly  °MP^' 
rates.  The  important,  dominating  principle  the  a™™ge  current  drawn  from  or  the  de- 
demonstrated  by  the  curves  is  that  the  deter-  mand  u?°n  s"ch  ^"'Pffnt,  for  the  usual 
mination  of  conditions  yielding  best  economy  ratmf  Puenods  of  tlme'  wl"  be  redufd  aPProx'- 
carry  with  them  such  utilization  of  the  time-  mate'y  b?  *«  same  Pontage  af. the  efficiency 
element  factors  that  coasting  time  must  result.  ls  mcrfa^d  by  thf  effic^  utilization  of  th, 

It  would  not  be  right  to  leave  this  phase  controlling  time-element  factors,   herein   dis- 

of  the  subject  without  considering  the  effect  cussed'    **,*  furtber  aPParent  fr°M  a  «udy  oi 

of  variation  in  the  time-element  factors  upon  tbe   sev e^al   *P*ed-time   and   power  diagrams 

the  heating  of  the  motor  equipment.    Fig.  16,  that  the  m,vf  tm^.nt  for  an  effic'ency  checkmf 

for  Company  A  and  Company  B  conditions,  syst«m  wl"  be  offset  many. fold  by  the  valut 

shows  the  results  of  studies  made  to  determine  of  *«  f  "crating  station,  distribution  system^ 

this  heating  effect.     In  each  case  the  square  a"d  s"bsta«°n  capacity,  unrequired  or  avail- 

of  the  current,  to  which  the  heating  is  propor-  able/orj  other  purposes,  due  to  the  reduct.or 

tional,  is  plotted  against  time,  and  the  average  of  the  demand  thereon' 
heating  current  is  plotted  against  per  cent 
coasting.      The   curve   between   the   average 

heating  current  and  per  cent  coasting  shows  Summary  and  Conclusions 

that  the  results  already  described  can  be  se-  By  way  of  summarizing  and  emphasizing  the 

cured  without  exceeding  the  equipment  limi-  results  of  the  foregoing  analysis  of  efficiency  o; 

tations.  car  operation  the  following  may  be  of  interest 

Questions  may  also  be  raised  as  to  the  effect  [  1  ]  The  power  input  necessary  to  operate  z 

of  the  rheostatic  losses  on  the  results  and  as  given  car  and  equipment  at  a  given  averagt 

to  the  effect  of  short-period,  high-rate  accele-  schedule  speed  and  with  a  given  number  o 

ration  on   the  power  plant.     The   construe-  stops  per  mile  is  solely  dependent  upon  th< 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


mi 


efficient  utilization  of  the  time-element  fao  As  was  stated  earlier  in  this  paper,  there  is  no 

tors :  acceleration,  braking  and  duration  of  stop.  question  as  to  the  necessity  for  efficiency 

The  effect  on  the  power  input  of  varia-  operating  an  electric  railway  property    Gross 

tion  in  these  time-element  factors  is  in  propor-  earnings  can  hardly  be  increased  under  existing 

tion  to  the  coasting  time,  and  the  increase  in  conditions,  and,  therefore,  net  earnings  can  be 

per  cent  coasting  is  in  proportion  to  decrease  increased  only  by  the  reduction  of  operating 

in  per  cent  energy  consumption.  expenses,  which  is  a  condition  and  not  a  theory 

[  3  ]  Since  efficient  utilization  of  power  for  that  confronts  us.   In  the  solution  of  the  prob- 

given  conditions  is  solely  determined  by  these  lem  of  securing  greater  efficiency,  practical  and 

time-element  factors,  the  correct  method  of  technical  analysis  must  be  applied  to  the  only 

checking  the  motorman's  efficiency  in  the  use  factors  that   control   and   determine   results. 

of  power  is  by  a  system  giving  him  a  positive,  As  demonstrated  hereinbefore,  the  laws  gov- 

authentic  record  of  his  efficient  utilization  of  erning   these    factors    are   based   on    known 

these   factors,   which  as  explained  above,   is  principles,  and  deductions  based  on  the  applica- 

measured  by  the  coasting  time  and  the  per  tion  of  these  principles  are  correct  to  the  cer- 

cent  coasting.  tainty  of  the  proverbial  "death  and  taxes." 

[  4  ]  Equipped  with  such  a  correct  method  No  railway  executive  or  engineering  staff 
of  checking  efficiency,  the  motorman  has  only  questions  the  reasonable  certainty  of  obtaining 
to  handle  his  equipment  and  to  take  advantage  calculated  efficiencies  and  results  from  the 
of  physical  conditions  encountered  in  operation  large  investment  involved  in  a  new  power 
so  as  to  obtain  the  greatest  possible  coasting  generating  station,  yet  the  factors  affecting 
time,  with  maintenance  of  schedule  time,  the  results  obtained  from  that  power  station 
on  each  trip  of  his  run.  The  coasting  time  can  contain  many  more  variables  than  the  time- 
be  increased  only  by  the  motorman's  efficient  element  factors  which  control  car  operation 
utilization  of  the  time-element  factors  of  efficiency,  and  the  correct  method  for  checking 
acceleration,  braking  and  duration  of  stop,  such  efficiency. 

these  being  the  only  factors  under  his  control  Doubtless  many  operating  companies 

that  can  affect  power  input.  already  secured,  or  are  securing,  large  ecoi 

[  5  ]  The  economical  schedule  speed  for  given  mies   from   increased   schedule 

conditions  is  also  dependent  upon  the  efficient  adopting  the  skip-stop  and 

utilization  of  the  time-element  factors,  and  to  from  the  use  of  coasting  signboar 

be  economical  the  schedule  must  be  such  as  education  of  employees    as 


mines    the    limitations    of    possible  schedule 
speeds,  with  a  given  equipment.  It  »  therefore 

operation  of  the  average  number  of  stops  per 
mile  and  the  average  duration  thereof. 

[  7  ]  The  per  cent  coasting  is  the  mea  ure 
of  the  correctness  of  the  relation  of  the  con- 
trolling   time-element   factors   for   any  give_ 
number  of  stops  per  mile  and  schedule  speed, 
and  of  the  motorman's  efficiency  without  re- 
gard  to  the  variation  in  number  of  stops  pe 
mile  and  schedule  speed  encountered  in  prac- 
tice. 


bi|ities  of  such 
™e  ™  real  zes  t      p«»™  ^ 


Approaching  ob- 

•  ^  ^^    .^ 

«mabl  e  etoc,     J        ^  ^ 

^SS  by  means  of  stop-watch  , 

(         coastjng  timCi 
ngsof  ninn  ng  ^  ^^  rf  $j 

du™  ,    dem(Jtrate   the   varubil.ty 
^.^  moMrmen  utilBe 

time^lcment    factors    under 


[42]  INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

the   same   conditions,  to   say  nothing  of  the  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 

variations    from    obtainable    possible    results,  coasting  which  has  been  referred  to  in  this 

and  will  prove  convincing  as  to  the  need  for  a  article  is  that  coasting  which  forms  an  inherent 

correct  efficiency  checking  system.  part  of  the  cycle  of  operations  involved   in 

To  expect  the  best  obtainable  results  with-  moving  the  car  efficiently  under  the  practical 

out  such  a  system  is  as  inconsistent,  when  the  conditions  of  traffic  operation.    Coasting  is  a 

facts   involved   are   considered,    as  would   be  function  of  such  a  cycle  just  as  is  acceleration, 

the  checking  of  conductors  in  matters  of  fares,  braking   or   duration   and   number   of  stops, 

etc.,  by  the  average  results  per  car  on  the  sys-  but,  as  demonstrated,  it  is  also  the  measure 

tern,    instead   of  using "  some   fare-registering  of  the  efficient  utilization  of  these  factors, 

checking  system.  The   efficiency   checking   system   based   on 

The  fact  that  increased  economies  are  accom-  measurement  of  coasting  comprehends  the 
plished  by  means  of  the  more  or  less  indirect  attainment  and  measurement  of  only  such 
methods  mentioned  points  unmistakably  to  coasting  as  exists  as  a  function  of  this  cycle, 
the  economies  which  may  be  obtained  when  It  does  not  involve,  as  some  seem  to  think,  the 
the  efficiency  problem  is  approached  with  the  slowing  of  schedules,  the  running  by  of  stop- 
correct  tool  and  accurate  yard  stick  for  ping  points,  the  operation  on  down  grade,  etc. 
measuring  the  efficient  utilization  of  the  con-  In  conclusion  the  writer  believes  that  execu- 
trolling  time-element  factors.  tives  and  transportation  managers  will  agree 

It  is  well  recognized  that  changing  the  gear  that  the  application  of  practical  and  technical 

ratio  or  utilizing  the  principle  of  field  control  principles   to   ordinary,    every-day   operation 

for  motors,  will  affect  material  economies  under  is  the  means  for  accomplishing  efficiency  in 

conditions  that  may  be  encountered  in  prac-  car  operation.    When  the  time-element  factors 

tical  operation.    However,  it  is  apparent  that  are  considered  there  will  be  no  difference  of 

such  changes  will  not  eliminate  the  importance  opinion  as  to  the  correct  method  of  checking 

for  the  efficient  utilization  of  the  controlling  efficiency,  or   as   to   the   justification   of  the 

time-element  factors  herein  considered.  necessary  investment  in  the  checking  system. 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


[43] 


Comments  on  CAR  OPERATION  EFFICIENCY  by 
W.  B.  POTTER,  Engineer  Railway  and  Traction  Department, 
General  Electric  Company 

GENERAL  ELECTRIC  COMPANY 
SCHENECTADY,  N.  Y.,  January  22,  1916. 

To  the  Editors: 

I  have  read  with  much  interest  C.  C.  Chappelle's  article 
in  the  issue  of  the  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  JOURNAL  for 
January  15,  on  the  "Fundamental  Principles  of  Car  Oper- 
ation Efficiency."  I  quite  agree  with  his  argument  in 
favor  of  the  maximum  percentage  of  coasting  practicable 
as  an  effective  method  of  minimizing  the  power  required 
for  a  given  run,  and  that  a  record  of  the  percentage  coast- 
ing is  a  desirable  and  effective  means  of  determining  the 
relative  operating  efficiency  of  different  motormen.  The 
percentage  values  as  illustrated  by  the  curves  are  subject 
to  variation  due  to  condition  of  track  and  rolling  stock, 
and  I  doubt  whether  results  in  practice  will  actually  con- 
form with  his  figures,  as  a  coasting  friction  of  10  Ibs.  per 
ton  is  lower  than  usually  considered  for  service  of  the  char- 
acter illustrated,  although  modifications  on  this  account 
would  not  detract  from  the  general  conclusions  of  the 

article. 

Economy  in  power,  however,  is  only  one  of  the  fact 
of  successful  operation.    Attempting  to  secure  minimum 
power  possible  through  maximum  obtainable  coasting,  with 
acceleration  and  braking  to  the  limit  of  adhesion  on  the  rail, 
would  obviously  be  undesirable  as  causing  discomfo 
passengers  and  increased  maintenance  by  reason  of  greatc 
wear  and  tear.    There  are  limits  beyond  which  it  will 
found  undesirable  to  reduce  the  power  consumption,  2 
it  does  not  follow  that  the  motorman  showing  the 
power  consumption  is  necessarily  the  best  operator    Unde 
such  circumstances  excessive  acceleration  and  brakin 
come  as  undesirable  as  the  failure  to  profit  by  coas  rung  » 
unnecessary.    A  proper  application  of  the  fft^ 
vocated   bv   Mr.   Chappelle   should   result   in  a 
"du  don  in  the  powerused  by  unskillful  motormen  with 
outTn  any  way  causing  discomfort  to  passengers,  or  adding 
to  maintenance  of  the  equipment. 


Engine  Railway  and  Traction  Department. 


Reprinted  ty  fission  from  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  JOURNAL,  January  29,  1916. 


[44]  INCREASING   CAR   OPERATION    ECONOMIES 

Comments  on  CAR  OPERATION  EFFICIENCY  by 
F.  E.  WYNNE,  Engineer  Railway  Section,  General  Engineering 
Division,  Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufacturing  Company 

WESTINGHOUSE  ELECTRIC  &  MANUFACTURING  COMPANY 

EAST  PITTSBURGH,  PA.,  January  11,  1916. 
To  the  Editors: 

A  most  interesting  and  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature 
on  this  subject  is  found  in  C.  C.  Chappelle's  article  in  the  issue  of 
the  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  JOURNAL  for  January  15.  From  time  to 
time  numerous  engineering  papers  and  articles  have  been  presented 
using  speed-time  curves  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  effects 
of  changing  operating  conditions  as  well  as  for  determining  the 
correct  equipment  to  apply.  The  manufacturers  of  railway  equip- 
ments have  for  years  endeavored  to  assist  the  operating  departments 
of  the  electric  railways  in  thoroughly  understanding  the  fundamental 
principles  governing  efficient  operation  of  cars.  In  spite  of  the 
progress  due  to  these  efforts,  there  is  much  yet  to  be  desired.  Mr. 
Chappelle's  discussion  of  these  principles  brings  out  a  point  which 
is  frequently  overlooked  in  practical  operation;  namely,  that  under 
a  given  set  of  conditions,  the  power  input  to  the  car  is  determined 
by  what  he  designates  as  "time-element  factors."  Therefore,  his 
article  should  be  of  great  assistance  in  securing  full  appreciation  of 
the  possibilities  for  economy  which  may  result  from  a  careful  an- 
alysis of  operating  conditions. 

He  mentions  the  large  investment  in  present  equipment  and  the 
impracticability  of  obtaining  the  maximum  economy  which  might  be 
secured  by  scrapping  it  and  installing  new  equipment  designed  to 
take  advantage  of  all  the  recent  developments  in  the  construction 
of  cars  and  electrical  apparatus.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to 
note  that  probably  on  many  roads  the  rolling  stock  is  being  operated 
at  less  than  its  maximum  efficiency.  In  such  cases  there  exists  the 
opportunity  for  the  application  of  the  fundamental  principles  to 
decrease  operating  expenses  and  improve  service  without  incurring 
the  great  expense  accompanying  a  complete  change  of  equipment. 
A  study  of  the  service  conditions  will  bring  to  light  incorrect  oper- 
ating features  such  as  overloaded  and  underloaded  equipments, 
wrong  gear  ratios,  slow  acceleration  and  braking  rates,  stops  of 
unnecessary  length,  poor  arrangements  of  schedule,  headway  and 
layover,  etc.  It  will  also  furnish  the  data  required  for  making  a 
logical  application  of  the  fundamental  principles  to  correct  such 
defects  as  may  be  discovered.  Consideration  of  these  facts  in  con- 
junction with  Mr.  Chappelle's  article  makes  it  evident  that  every 
railway  operator  should  be  fully  acquainted  with  all  the  details  of 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  [45, 


his  service  conditions  in  order  to  get  the  most  economical  results 
trom  the  equipment  which  is  under  his  control. 

In  the  matter  of  determining  the  most  economical  schedule 
only  the  cost  of  energy  and  the  platform  expense  have  been  con* 
sidered.  Apparently,  the  maintenance  and  fixed  charges  also 
should  be  taken  into  account.  However,  these  are  minor  factors  in 
comparison  with  the  cost  of  energy  and  crew  wages,  so  that  the 
general  conclusions  will  not  be  affected  materially.  Evidently  the 
total  maintenance  and  fixed  charges  per  car-mile  would  be  de- 
creased, although  the  value  per  car  annually  would  be  greater.  It 
is  important  to  remember  that  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  higher 
schedules  are  greater  when  the  platform  expense  is  high  as  compared 
with  the  cost  of  energy.  It  is  also  interesting  to  note  from  Fig.  15 
that  the  average  per  cent  coasting  for  the  most  economical  results  is 
greater  for  Case  "A"  than  for  Case  "B."  This  illustrates  the  fact 
that  the  numerous  variables  encountered  make  the  problem  some- 
what different  for  each  railway. 

If  schedule  speeds  for  different  runs  and  at  different  times  of 
day  are  once  adjusted  to  be  the  most  economical  in  each  case,  Fig.  IS 
indicates  that  approximately  equal  amounts  of  coasting  should  be 
secured  with  stops  varying  in  frequency  over  the  range  ordinarily 
found  in  city  service.    This  being  the  case,  the  coasting  time  alone 
will  indicate  directly  the  relative  efficiencies  of  various  motormen. 
However,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  adjust  schedules  to  the  most 
economical  value  on  account  of  the  necessity  for  maintaining  cer- 
tain headway  and  meeting  competition.    For  instance,  one  motor- 
man  in  all-day  service  might  be  100  per  cent  efficient  when  securing 
40  per  cent  coasting.    On  the  same  line,  the  rush-hour  service 
might  be  such  that  an  extra  motorman  on  a  tripper  would  be  100 
per  cent  efficient  with  only  20  per  cent  coasting.    Hence  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  a  record  of  the  number  of  stops  and  the  standing  time 
as  well  as  the  coasting  time  in  order  to  make  fair  comparisons, 
knowledge  of  the  frequency  and  duration  of  stops  is  also  necessary  in 
order  to  satisfactorily  analyze  a  service  and  determine  from  the  analy- 
sis what  schedules  are  the  most  economical.    Such  analysis  followed 
by  adjusting  schedules  to  the  most  economical  value  will  be  highly 
profitable  to  many  railways.    An  instrument  for  measuring  am 
cording  running  time,  coasting  time,  standing  time  and  numb 
stops  would  make  such  an  analysis  a  comparatively  simple  prob 
and  also  insure  proper  operation  of  the  equipments  on  the 
cal  schedules  as  determined. 


Engineer  Railway  Section,  General  Engineering  L 
R, printed  by  permission  from  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  JOURNAL,  January  22,  1916. 


[46] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


Comments  on  CAR  OPERATION  EFFICIENCY  by 
H.  ST.  GLAIR  PUTNAM,  of  L.  B.  Stillwell,  Consulting  Engineer -s, 
100  Broadway,  New  York  City 

L.  B.  STILLWELL,  Consulting  Engineers 

NEW  YORK,  March  20,  1916. 
To  the  Editors: 

I  have  read  with  interest  Mr.  Chappelle's  analysis  of  the  "Fun- 
damental Principles  of  Car  Operation  Efficiency,"  as  based  upon  the 
coasting  element  in  the  speed-time  curve,  which  was  published  in 
the  issue  of  the  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  JOURNAL  for  January  15,  1916. 
The  theory  of  the  coasting  element  of  the  speed-time  curve,  as 
measured  by  the  coasting  clock,  was  discussed  in  a  paper  on  "Power 
Economy  in  Electric  Railway  Operation — Coasting  Tests  on  the 
Manhattan  Railway,  New  York,"  presented  by  me  before  the 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  on  June  28,  1910. 

The  analysis  now  made  by  Mr.  Chappelle  reaches  the  same 
conclusions  as  were  then  presented,  excepting  that  Mr.  Chappelle 
has  extended  his  analysis  to  include  a  general  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem, and  includes  also  a  study  of  the  relation  between  platform 
expense  and  the  most  economical  schedule  speed  for  any  given 
equipment  and  condition  of  operation.  This  is  a  very  interesting 
addition  to  the  subject  and  should  be  of  value  to  operating  com- 
panies. 

The  useful  energy  absorbed  in  moving  a  train  or  car  from  one  point 
to  another  depends  only  upon  the  train  resistance,  which,  of  course, 
includes  the  resistance  due  to  grades  and  curves.  The  wasted 
energy  appears  as  rheostat  losses  in  acceleration,  motor  losses  and 
energy  absorbed  in  braking.  Where  the  equipment  for  a  road  is 
already  installed  the  useful  energy  required  for  a  run  over  a  given 
portion  of  the  road  is  practically  constant.  As  has  been  frequently 
pointed  out,  any  method  of  operation  that  results  in  the  application 
of  the  brakes  at  a  lower  speed  tends  to  produce  a  saving  in  the  energy 
used.  Any  method  of  operation  that  increases  the  amount  of  coast- 
ing decreases  the  speed  at  which  the  brakes  are  applied  and  tends  to 
reduce  the  amount  of  energy  wasted  in  braking,  and  hence  also  tends 
to  reduce  the  amount  of  energy  required  for  the  operation  of  the 
train.  In  railway  equipments  as  usually  installed  the  relationship 
seems  to  be  that  an  increase  of  1  per  cent  in  the  amount  of  coasting 
results  in  a  saving  of  approximately  1  per  cent  in  the  amount  of  energy 
used. 

It  has  been  called  to  my  attention  that  in  my  paper  above  men- 
tioned the  paragraph  referring  to  a  momentary  pause  on  the  series 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  [471 


point  during  acceleration,  and  the  effect  of  such  a  pause  on  the 
amount  of  energy  used,  shows  a  result  inconsistent  with  the  general 
principle  as  set  forth  above.  The  general  principle,  however,  is 
controlling  in  this  case  also,  the  discrepancy  being  caused  by  factors 
resulting  from  the  use  of  the  starting  resistance. 

The  pausing  on  series  position  of  the  controller  for  a  few  seconds 
should  not  be  confused  with  such  operation  as  occurs  in  short  runs 
encountered  in  congested  districts  of  a  surface  line  route,  or  in 
approaching  curves  and  switches  where  series  operation  only  is  a 
special  and  unavoidable  condition,  with  an  equipment  selected 
for  normal  multiple  operation  in  reference  to  the  average  conditions 
encountered  in  service. 

The  result  of  a  pause  on  the  series  point  in  acceleration  is  a  re- 
duction in  the  average  rate  of  acceleration,  and  this  results  in  a  de- 
crease in  the  amount  of  coasting,  an  increase  in  the  speed  at  which 
braking  is  begun,  and  therefore  an  increase  in  the  energy  wasted  in 
braking.    There  would  then  be  a  corresponding  increase  in  the 
energy  actually  used  in  the  operation  of  the  train,  unless  it  is  offset 
by  the  reduction  in  the  energy  absorbed  in  the  rheostat,  due  to  the 
elimination  of  a  part  of  the  rheostat  losses  in  the  multiple  position. 
The  energy  absorbed  in  the  rheostat  is  not  actually  used  in  the 
movement  of  the  train,  but  is  absorbed  in  the  rheostat  before  it 
reaches  the  motors.    If  the  reduced  voltage  on  the  motors  could  be 
obtained  in  some  other  way,  the  general  principle  would  hold  true 
in  this  case  as  in  all  others.    In  the  case  where  rheostat  control  is 
used,  however,  a  slight  pause  on  the  series  position  in  acceleration 
results  in  cutting  out  a  material  portion  of  the  rheostat  losses  in  the 
multiple  position,  because  of  the  increase  that  has  occurred  in  the 
speed  of  the  train.    This  reduction  in  rheostat  losses  tends  to  offset 
the  additional  energy  required  because  of  the  lower  average  rate  of 
acceleration.     For  a  very  short  pause  on  series,  in  accelen 
amounting  to  from  one  to  three  or  four  seconds,  depending  on  t 
maximum  speed  of  the  equipment  used  and  the  rate  of  initial  accelera- 
tion,  the  reduction  in  the  energy  losses  in  the  rheostat  may  equ; 
or  exceed  the  increase  in  the  actual  energy  input  to  the  motors  cause 
by  the  resulting  lower  average  rate  of  acceleration, 
circumstances  there  will  be  but  little  or  no  increase  m  the 
energy  taken  by  the  equipment,  or  it  may  even  decrease. 

As  the  rheostat  is  in  circuit  in  the  multiple  position  for  from  say 


"^This  long  period  is  found  in  heavy  electric  traction. 


[48]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


tion.  As  the  saving  in  energy,  if  any,  resulting  from  this  method  of 
operation  increases  the  wear  on  brake-shoes  and  wheels  and  en- 
dangers the  maintenance  of  the  schedule,  motormen  should  be  in- 
structed against  pausing  on  the  series  point  during  acceleration. 
The  best  all-round  results  are  obtained  by  getting  up  to  speed  as 
rapidly  as'  practicable. 

The  disadvantages  of  rheostatic  control  have  been  long  recog- 
nized, but  the  rheostat  is  the  most  practical  device  available  for  d.c. 
motor  control.  Where  it  is  possible  to  obtain  voltage  control 
directly,  as  in  alternating-current  operation  or  by  field  regulation  in 
direct-current  operation,  then  the  general  principle  is  of  universal 
application.  It  can  be  stated  generally,  therefore,  that  any  method 
of  operation  that  increases  the  amount  of  coasting  decreases  the 
amount  of  energy  required  for  the  operation  of  the  train. 

H.  S.  PUTNAM. 

Consulting  Engineer. 


Reprinted  by  permission  from  ELECTRIC  RAILWAY  JOURNAL,  April  1,  1916 


Chapter  Three 


Relation  Between  Car  Operation  and  Power  Consumption 


Chapter  Three 


Relation  Between  Car  Operation  and 
Power  Consumption* 

BY  J.  F.  LAYNG 

Railway  and  Traction  Engineering  Department, 
General  Electric  Company 

SINCE  the  early  days  of  electric  railroad-  ing  at  all  times,  and  as  a  result  the  coasting 

ing  it  has  been  known  that  in  test  runs  clock  was  designed  and  is  now  very  extensively 

there     are    great    differences    between  used  throughout  the  country, 

power  used,  even  when  the  conditions  of  service  Two  other  methods  that  have  been  used  in 

are  the  same.  With  the  same  car  over  the  same  a  number  of  instances  to  obtain  the  maximum 

route,  with  the  same  number  and  length  of  coasting  consist  in  employing  wattmeters  and 

stops,  the  power  consumption  will  vary  more  ampere-hour  meters.    With  these  two  instru- 

than  30  per  cent  when  operated  by  different  ments  it  is  of  course  necessary  to  make  proper 

motormen.   This  is  a  case  where  the  difference  allowance  for  the  difference  in  the  weight  of 

between  individuals  is  strongly  emphasized.  cars  when  making  an  analysis.   Recently  there 

It  is  also  recognized  that  with  the  same  has  been  considerable  data  published  regarding 
motorman  on  different  days  the  power  used  will  the  methods  of  obtaining  the  maximum  amount 
vary  greatly.  If  he  feels  strong  and  in  a  good  of  coasting,  and  it  would  therefore  seem  ad- 
humor  the  motorman  accelerates  fast  and  saves  visable  to  make  an  analysis  of  the  fundamentals 
power,  but  if  he  feels  otherwise  he  will  acceler-  which  will  illustrate  in  curve  form  just  what  can 
ate  slowly  and  consequently  waste  power  in  be  expected  in  energy  savings  by  accelerating 
starting  resistors.  Weather  conditions,  of  and  decelerating  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
course,  will  cause  variation  in  the  amount  of  To  illustrate  these  points,  calculations  and 
power  used,  but  with  reference  to  the  remarks  curves  have  been  made  on  cars  weighing  1 
just  made,  it  is  assumed  that  weather  condi-  tons  complete  with  load,  and  equipped  with 
tions  are  normal.  two  motors.  It  is  assumed  that  the  car^ 

The  difference  in  power  consumption  in  the  geared  to  have  a  free  running  spe 

different  runs  is  caused  by  the  relative  amount  miles  per  hour,  a  1000  ft  run,  a  sch 

of  coasting  and  rate  of  braking  by  the  differ-  of  10.65  miles  per  hour  7 

ent  men  Ib.  per  ton  friction.    As  has  been  p 

'  The  maximum  amount  of  coasting  is  ob-  stated,  with  maximum  rates  of  accelerate 

tained  when  a  car  is  accelerated  at  a  maximum  deceleration  the  maximum  amount 

rate    and    decelerated    at    a    maximum    rate  '^Turves  shown  in  Fig.   1   illustrate  the 

When  a  car  „  accelerated  rapid  y  instead  of  ^^^^  J  be  requircd  ^ 

slowly,   the   starting  resistor  is  in  use  for  P     accelerating  at  different  rates, 

proportionately   shorter   length   of  time   and  on  ™"e         ^  and  2  miles  per  hour  per 

consequently  the  difference  in  the  energy  con-  *  4,    ^"J™^  J,lso  plotted 

sumption  is  transferred  from  rheostatic  losses  seco 

r  ,         ,  on  these  curves. 

to  useful  work.  ,      f  the  amounts  Of  energy  required 

A  few  years  ago  there  were  a  number  A         J^  ^  Qf  acceleration  is  vcry 

investigations  made  to  determine  some  sysl  ti        When  accelerating  at  ?-{  miles  per 

matic  method  of  securing  the  maximum  coas  *•          k  ^  found  thaf  the     ^  con. 

*R«riutod  by  permission  from  October  1915  issue  G.N.BAL  EL.CTBIC  R.V..W. 


[52] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


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Figure  3 


Increase  of  Energy  Consumption  for  a  gtven,  Run  and  Schedule 
as  the  Time  of  Stop  is  Increased 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  [53] 

sumption  is  1  10  watthours  per  ton  mile.  When  of  acceleration  and  braking  is  in  the  neighbor. 

accelerating  at  1  mile  per  hour  per  second  this  hood  of  Ifc  miles  per  hour  per  second 

is  reduced  to  80  watt-hours  per  ton  mile,  and  ever,  there  are  some  cities  in'the  Unhed  sYa™ 

when  acceleratmg  at  %  Ifc  and  2  miles  per  where,   due   to  exceptional   conditions,    t" 

hour  per  second  the  energy  required  will  be  83,  deemed  advisable  to  accelerate  and  decelerate 

^    /«  watthours  Per  ton  mile  respectively,  at  2  miles  per  hour  per  second.  This  of  course 

fhe  difference  in  energy  saving  is  considera-  gives   the   highest   possible   schedule   speeds 

bly  less  between  the  higher  rates  of  accelera-  which  of  necessity  gives  the  largest  number  of 

tion  than  between  the  extremely  low  rates;  car  miles  per  hour  which  can  be  obtained,  and 

it  will  be  noticed  that  the  difference  between  in  this  manner  the  greatest  use  of  a  car  is  ob- 

the  110  watthours  and  90  watthours  is  19  per  tainable. 

cent,  while  the  difference  between  90,  83,  79  It  has  also  long  been  recognized  that  by 

and  76  will  be  7,  5,  and  3.8  per  cent,  respec-  carefully  following  up  the  motorman's  instruc- 

tively.   Therefore  it  will  be  appreciated  that  tion  with  the  assistance  of  coasting  clocks, 

while  there  is  some  considerable  saving  be-  ampere-hour  meters  or  wattmeters,  the  motor- 

tween  accelerating  at  1}^  miles  per  hour  per  man  will  realize  the  advantages  which  will 

second  and  2  miles  per  hour  per  second  still  at  accrue  from  coasting,  and  in  this  way  great 

the  same  time  the  saving  is  considerably  less  savings  will  be  made  in  power,  brake  shoes, 

than  in  rates  of  acceleration  lower  than  this  and    wheels.       Coasting    records    also   show 

value.  whether  it  is  possible  to  decrease  the  number 

Fig.  2  has  been  made  to  illustrate  the  valpe  of  cars  on  a  given  line,  and  give  a  direct  indi- 

of  braking  or  decelerating  at  different  rates,  cation  of  how  much  leeway  there  is  in  sched- 

and  is  based  on  the  same  data  as  given  in  Fig.  ules.    There  are  other  ways  in  which  power 

1.     This  curve  is  made  up  on  the  basis  of  can  be  saved,  that  is,  by  decreasing  the  length 

accelerating  at  ll/%  miles  per  hour  per  second,  of  stop  and  also  slightly  extending  the  schedule 

The  rates  of  deceleration  chosen  are  0.825,  1,  speeds.  Analysis  of  many  conditions  will  show 

\Y^  and  2  miles  per  hour  per  second.  The  addi-  that  in  some  cases  by  very  slightly  extending  the 

tional  amount  of  coasting  which  is  obtained  will  running  time  considerable  power  can  be  saved. 

enable  current  to  be  cut  off  from  the  motors  Fig.  3  illustrates  the  amount  of  power  which 

sooner  than  when  braking  at  some  relatively  can  be  saved  when  making  the  same  schedule 

lower  rate,  and  a  greater  amount  of  coasting  as  has  been  previously  outlined  in  Figs. 

will  be  obtained.   The  energy  required  for  the  2.    With  4,  8  and  12-second  stops  the  energy 

different  rates  of  deceleration  are  respectively,  required  to  propel  the  car  will 

100  85,  79  and  76  watt-hours  per  ton  mile.  105  watthours  per  ton  mile  respectively,  wh.c 

The  difference  between  100  watthours  per  shows  a  saving  in  energy  of 

ton  mile  and  85  watthours  per  ton  mile  is  15  tween  the  8-second  and  12 

per  cent,  and  the  difference  between  the  other  maintain  the  same  schedule  :  w, 

values  are  7.5  per  cent  and  4  per  cent  re-  stop   will    require  4L8   per   cen  :   *dt  l.t  onal 

The  difference  in  accelerating  from  the  lower  on      je   are   «*"             ^  m  „  J^ 


e       erence  n  ac 

to  the  higher  rate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  gives  a  inmg  t 

saving  of  31  per  cent.  These  values  when  con-  ^Z£^^?£*&»  operate  a 
sidered  separately  can  actually  be  obtamed  0  Jf,  ^'bsolutely  no  coasting,  such  a, 
but  there  are  points  between  the  lowest  rat  "»*£^  run>  b,/these  figures  illustrate 
of  acceleration  and  the  lowest  rate  of  «J*  ^^  Qf  ^  ^^  working  ,eeway  in  running 

where  the  lines  cross. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  the  proper  rate 


[54] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  actual  running 
time,  not  including  stop,  is  extended  to  80 
seconds,  and  that  the  energy  is  reduced  to  54 
watthours  per  ton  mile,  but  the  schedule  has 
been  reduced  from  11.7  miles  per  hour  to  7.8 
miles  per  hour  when  considering  the  entire 
range  which  is  covered  by  the  curve. 

The  last  two  sets  of  curves  which  have  just 
been  discussed  are  entirely  separate  from 
the  first  two  curves.  The  first  curves  illus- 
trate certain  fixed  conditions  with  reference 
to  schedule  speed,  length  of  run  and  length 
of  stop,  while  the  last  two  curves  assume  the 
operating  conditions  to  be  changed,  that  is, 
by  changing  the  length  of  stop  or  extending 
the  schedule  speed. 

After  reviewing  the  four  series  of  curves 


given,  there  can  be  but  two  conclusions,  viz.: 
the  effort  to  keep  track  of  power  consumption 
and  to  instruct  the  motorman  is  a  very  profit- 
able undertaking,  and  that  there  is  as  much 
reason  for  following  up  and  keeping  tab  of  the 
energy  used  by  individual  motormen  as  there 
is  for  keeping  record  of  any  other  expenditures 
on  the  property. 

By  keeping  these  records  and  following  them 
up  properly,  savings  in  power  of  20  to  25  per 
cent  can  reasonably  be  expected.  In  many 
cases  a  study  of  the  local  conditions  will  show 
how  schedules  can  be  slightly  rearranged  and 
either  less  cars  used  for  a  given  service,  or  the 
running  time  can  be  very  slightly  extended 
and  the  power  savings  made  which  are  illus- 
trated in  the  curves  of  Fig.  4. 


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60 


Figure  4 


Decrease  irt  Energy  Consumption,  Current  Input,  and  Schedule  Speed 
by  Increasing  the  Coasting  in  a  1000-ft.  Run 


Chapter  Four 


Economies  in  Railway  Operation 


Chapter  Four 


Economies  in  Railway  Operation 

BY  F.  E.  WYNNE 

Engineer  Railway  Section,  General  Engineering  Division 
Westinghouse  Electric  &  Manufacturing  Company 

NOTE:  Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  F.  B.  Wynne  we  have  reprinted  in  this  Chapter  IV  portions  of  his 
paper  read  in  1912  before  the  Baltimore  Section  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers.  Mr  Wrnns 
discusses  several  elements  and  factors  that  can  effect  economy  of  operation.  Some  of  these  can  be  comedy 
determined  as  to  their  adaptability  in  the  selection  of  equipment,  while  others  are  controlled  more  or  less  en- 
tirely by  the  operations  of  the  motorman  or  the  motorman  and  conductor.  To  appry  most  effectively  the  prin- 
ciples discussed  by  Mr.  Wynne  in  reference  to  gear  ratio,  type  of  control,  etc.,  it  is  necessary  to  hare  an  ac- 
curate record  of  the  traffic  conditions  and  requirements,  while  the  economies  he  shows  as  obtainable  In  the 
correct  operation  of  cars  in  service  can  only  be  attained  by  means  of  an  effective  and  constant  'K^.n-0  of 
the  actual  operations  of  every  car.  It  will  be  apparent  that  the  foregoing  necessary  requirements  areeffee- 
tively  accomplished  only  by  means  of  the  Rico  Coasting  Recorder  or  the  Rico  C  &  8  Recorder.  (C,  C.  ChappeDe.; 

NEVER  before  in  the  history  of  modern  ments  that  are  found  on  all  up-to-date  roads, 
industrialism  has  there  been  such  a  Car  bodies,  trucks,  wheels,  control  and  motors 
stupendous  effort  made  by  everyone  have  all  improved  to  an  extent  undreamed  of  a 
for  high  efficiency  as  at  the  present  time.    It  few  years  ago.    Not  only  has  there  been  a 
is  the  keynote  of  every  convention;  the  pro-  great  increase  in  reliability — which  is  always 
ceedings  of  the  Institute  and  other  engineering  one  of  the  greatest  assets  a  road  can  have- 
societies  are  full  of  it;  magazines  and  daily  but  the  cost  of  inspection  and  maintenance 
papers  are  devoting  a  great  deal  of  space  to  the  has  been  reduced  to  a  degree  that  makes  it 
subject.  cheaper   to    scrap    old    equipments    than    to 

Under  such  conditions  it  is  natural  that  the  operate  them, 
pendulum  in  railway  operation,  which  has  un-         Since  the  life  of  wearing  parts 

til  recently  been   swinging  far  upon  the  side  creased  to  an  extent  that  but  little  return  i 

of  safety  and  reliability  at  any  cost,  started  to  be  expected  from  further  endeavors 

swing  toward   the   side   of  reduction  in  cost  line,  the  busy  minds  of  engineers 

at  the  price,  as  some  engineers  think,  of  both  country  have  been  turned  toward 

safety   and   reliability.     When   this   happens,  of  reducing  cost  of  operation  and _hav, 

an  extreme  is  likely  to  be  reached  that  may  rested  on  the  cost  of  power. 

show  a  reduction  in  cost  of  some  items  that  have  one  of  the  larger  items ;  in i  the 

been  in  the  limelight,  but  will  show  an  increase  and  offers  a  fruitful  field  for  mves 

-  ...       f  A *.    _~.-.-<r   anmn«>/»rc    h^V^   I 

in  other  items  affected  thereby  that  will  tar 


a  change  from  practice  that  is  giving  good  >°       P                                    ,h( 

results.     In  other  words,  the  old  maxim,    be  and  the  k         JTJJ^  ,5,000  to90,OOC 

sure  you  are  right,  then  go  ahead,"  apphes  "£^^^^2  may  cos.  in  on. 

here  with  special  force.  kilowatt-hour  at  the  switch 

Probably  nowhere   has   this  search  for  effi-  «  .4cen   f                         ^  ^  ^ 

ciency  been  more  active  than  m  the  electric  board    and              ^  ^              ^              . 

railway  field.     In  the  first  place  every  part  of  unt^                    ^  ^  ^  ^  ^ 

the  equipment  has  been  studied  with  the  great  ou                             conditions  of  sen-ice  ma) 

est  care  to  increase  its  life  and  reliability  and  w  dely.    FjMJ  y^  ^  ^  ^^           « 

decrease  the  cost  of  maintenance.  «T            thours  per   ton-mile    at  the  car 

resulted    in    the    present    magnificent   equ.p-  to 


[58]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

A  road  which  averages  50,000  miles  per  car  section,  regardless  of  the  actual  cause  of  the 

per  annum,  consuming  100  watthours  per  ton-  break,  which  might  have  been  in  something 

mile  at  the  car,  and  whose  power  costs  1.5  entirely  different.    This,  of  course,  resulted  in 

cents  per  kilowatt-hour   at   the  car,  will   pay  designs  which  were  unnecessarily  heavy.     It 

3%  cents  per  pound  per  annum  for  power.  is  the  part  of  good  designers  and  conservative 

50,000  x  .lOOx  1.5  engineers  to  redesign  them,  distributing  mate- 

wnere  necessary  for  strength  and  cutting 


2000  out  as  mucn  unnecessary  material  as  possible. 

It  is  astonishing  what  results  have  already 

But  whatever  the  actual  cost  may  be,  it  has  been  obtained  in  this  line,  and  the  end  is  not 

put  the  matter  before  the  operating  people  in  yet.     The   use   of  high-grade    materials    and 

such  an  attractive  way  that  many  of  them  have  pressed-steel  shapes  with  new  types  especially 

been  bending  every  energy  to  reducing  weight,  fitted  for  them  will  still  further  reduce  weights 

thinking  that  every  pound  reduced,  no  matter  of  car  bodies  and  trucks,  and  now  the  question 

how  reduced,  will  result  in  an  immediate  saving  has   been   put   squarely  up   to   the   electrical 

of  5  cents  per  pound  per  annum.     Some  even  manufacturers   to   reduce   the   weight   of  the 

go  so  far  as  to  say  that  every  pound  removed  motors  and  control  apparatus. 
from  the    dead   weight   of  a  car  is  worth  75 
cents  to  them  —  off  the  car. 

This  is  the  kind  of  talk  that  must  be  accepted  I  ^  J 

with  a  good  deal  of  salt.    It  is,  no  doubt,  true  Proper  Gearing  and  Armature  Speed 
that  if  the  cost  of  operation  per  ton-  mile  re- 

mains the  same  with  the  lighter  weight  cars  and  "The  selection  of  improper  gear  ratios  for 

equipments,   the  saving  will  be  made.     The  railway-motor   equipments   has   alone   caused 

danger  is  that  in  reducing  the  weight,  condi-  a  l°ss  °f  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  to 

tions  may  be  altered  so  much  as  to  make  the  tne  operating  and  manufacturing  companies  in 

cost  of  operation  more  than  before.    The  cost  tms  country.     Motors  have  been  overloaded 

of  inspection  and  maintenance  may  be  increased  and  burned  out  by  the  thousands.     Fifty  horse- 

on  account  of  the  necessity  for  more  frequent  power  motors  have  been  used  where  40  horse- 

renewals  of  wearing  parts.  power  motors  would  have  done  equally  well  if 

It  is  intended  to  discuss  in  this  paper  some  properly  geared.    Power  houses  and  substations 

of  the  proposed  means  for  saving  power  on  nave  been  overloaded,  have  had  their  load  fac- 

electric  railroads  and  to  clear  up,  if  possible,  tor  greatly  decreased  and  the  line  loss  has  been 

some  of  the  misunderstandings  that  exist  at  greatly  increased,  simply  because  the  motors 

the  present  time.  on  the  cars  have  been  geared  for  too  high 

speeds.     Few  people  who  have  not  made  a 

r  j  1  special  study  of  the  subject  realize  its  impor- 

tance, and  at  the  present  time,  in  spite  of  the 

Keductlon  ot  Weight  campaign  which  has  been  waged  against  it  by 

In  the  development  of  the  electric  railways,  the  manufacturing  companies  and  a  few  en- 

the  evolution  of  cars  and   equipments   from  hghtened  engineers,  there  are  still  a  good  many 

the  old  horse  cars  to  the  modern  double-truck  motors  in  service  which  are  so  geared  as  to  re- 

city  cars  and  the  high-speed  interurban  cars,  sult  in  a  continual  loss  to  the  operating  corn- 

has  been  attended  by  much  grief  and  loss.  P3^'     The  lar£e  companies  have  been  realiz- 

The  development  was  so  rapid  that  the  only  in£  more  and  more  in  recent  years  the  disad~ 

method  possible  to  pursue  was  to  build  the  car  vantages  of  high-speed  gearing  and  some  of 

and  equip  it,  using  the  best  judgment  obtain-  them  are  now  making  wholesale  changes  in 

able  in  proportioning  the  parts.  their  gearing>  reducing  the  maximum  speeds 

Where   parts   broke   in   service,   they  were  and  making  savings  of  5  to  12  per  cent  in  power 

usually  strengthened  by  increasing  weight  and  *N.  w.  storer  in  ELECTRIC  JOURNAL,  volume  s,  Page  sio. 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


[591 


temperature  of  the  motors." 

Probably  5  to  10  per  cent  of  all  the  power 
used  for  propelling  electric  cars  and  trains 
could  be  saved  by  correct  gearing. 

The  maximum  gear  reduction  varies  from 


reducing  the  than  the  motor  of  higher  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. Both  of  these  features  tend  to  reduce  the 
power  consumed. 

As  an  illustration  compare  the  shorter  runs 
in  Figs.  1  and  2.  In  each  case  train,  grade 
and  curve  resistance  has  been  taken  at  22 


3.5:1  to  5:1,  depending  upon  the  power  of  the  pounds  per  ton.  The  slow-speed  motor  of  Fig. 
motor.  The  armature  speed  at  the  500-volt  2  takes  the  same  accelerating  current  as  the 
rating  of  the  motor  varies  from  about  500  to  high-speed  motor  of  Fig.  1.  Because  of  the 
650  revolutions  per  minute.  Therefore,  with  quicker  start  with  the  slow-speed  motor,  the 
maximum  reduction  and  minimum  wheel  diam- 
eter, the  car  speed  at  full  load  of  the  motors 
varies  between  about  10  and  18  miles  per  hour. 
Even  motors  of  the  same  power  are  built  for 
such  speeds  that  with  the  same  gearing,  the  car 
speeds  differ  by  as  much  as  25  per  cent.  The 
opportunity  for  incorrect  motor  application, 


heavy  current  does  not  last  so  long,  the  same 
amount  of  coasting  is  obtained,  and  the  brakes 
are  applied  at  a  lower  speed.  The  gain  in 
power  consumption  in  favor  of  the  slow-speed 
motor  is  10.9  per  cent.  Part  of  this  saving  is 
the  result  of  lower  rheostatic  losses  and  the 
balance  is  due  to  the  smaller  amount  of  stored 


particularly  where  stops  are  frequent,  is  there-  energy  wasted  in  the  braking  process, 

fore  apparent.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  gain  of  10.9  per 

cent  is  in  total  power  consumed  and  is  in  spite 

[  A  ]    CITY   SERVICE                        (  Qf  ^  extfa  weight  Qf  caf  wjth  the  slow-speed 

By  city  service  we  mean  the  service  in  the  motor.    It  is  further  worthy  of  note  that  the 

larger  cities  where  stops  average  seven  (7)  or  heating  of  the  high-speed  motor  is  the  greater, 

more  per  mile  and  are  fairly  evenly  distributed.  These  curves  will  also  serve  to  illustrate  the 

In  such  service  there  is  very  little  or  no  running  effect  of  gear  ratio.    The  high-speed  motor 

at  full  speed.     The  essentials  for  maintaining  corresponds  to  the  slow-speed  motor  < 

the  schedule  are  rapid  acceleration  and  brak-  4.43:1  gear  reduction, 

ing      In  most  cases  there  is  no  difficulty  in  stance,  the  car  weights  should  be  the 

keeping  cars  on  time  with  the  motors  geared  that  the  difference  in  favor  of 

with  the  maximum  reduction.  Under  such  con-  gearing  is  even  a  little  greate 

ditions  a  motor  of  low  revolutions  per  minute  per  cent  saving  indicated  by  the  wai 

with  the  same  gear  reduction  will  do  either  one  ton-mile  values  of  the 

or  two  things"  it  will  give  the  same  rate  of  The  motor  speeds  used  are  wit 

acceleration  with  less  current  or  with  the  same  of  commercial  apparatus  and 

current  it  will  give  a  higher  rate  of  acceleration  within  the  limits  found  on  i 


Figure  1 


Figure  2 


[60]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

in  the  same  service,  so  that  actual  service  con-  annually.    The  net  saving  is  $38.00  annually 

ditions  are  represented.  in  favor  of  the  slow-speed  motor.    The  actual 

The  argument  most  frequently  heard  against  difference  is  more  than  this  because  part  of 

the  adoption  of  slow  armature  speed  and  high-  the  saving  of  5  cents  per  pound  annually  is 

gear  ratios  for  city  service  is  that  the  car  speed  based  on  reduced  power  consumption  with  the 

will  be  so  slow  that  the  running  time  will  be  high-speed  motor.     We  have  shown  that  this 

greater.  basis  is  incorrect. 

Let  us  examine  this  contention  and  see  of  If  the  heavier  car  consumed  the  same  energy 

how  much  value  it  really  is.     Figs.  1  and  2  per  ton-mile  (145  watt-hours)  as  the  lighter 

show  that  the  two  motors  made  the  schedule  car,   the   latter  would   save   in   energy  4350 

equally  well.     The  higher  acceleration  is  ob-  kilowatt-hours    annually.     Hence,    343.50    of 

tained  with  the  slow-speed  motor  without  sub-  the  $100.00  annual  saving  credited  to  the  light 

jecting  the  equipment  to  any  heavier  current,  motor  above  is  not  really  obtained  and  the 

The  amount  of  coasting  is  practically  the  same,  actual  net  saving  for  the  slow-speed  motor  is 

so  that  if  the  runs  were  made  without  any  coast,  $81.50  per  year. 

the  times  would  be  the  same.  The  high-speed  Many  railway  systems  are  facing  the  prob- 
motor  is  already  slightly  overworked,  so  there  lem  of  operating  more  cars,  while  their  gener- 
is no  hope  of  making  a  faster  schedule  by  fore-  ating  and  distributing  systems  are  already 
ing  its  rate  of  acceleration  up  to  the  value  which  loaded  to  their  full  capacity.  The  reduction  in 
is  safe  with  the  slow-speed  motor.  Neither  can  power  consumption  with  slow-speed  motors 
the  high-speed  motor  take  advantage  of  more  would  mean  that  more  cars  could  be  operated 
rapid  braking  to  increase  the  schedule  speed,  without  increasing  the  generating  and  distribut- 
However,  since  the  slow-speed  motor  is  not  yet  ing  capacity.  So  the  questions  of  motor  speed 
worked  up  to  its  full  capacity,  it  can  use  faster  and  gearing  are  exceedingly  important  when 
braking  to  a  certain  extent  without  being  over-  considering  the  installation  of  a  new  system 
loaded.  or  a  new  line.  It  is  unfortunate  that  this  has 

The  figures  given  above  show  the  saving  in  not  been  better  appreciated  in  the  past, 
power  at  the  car.    This  is  further  augmented 

by    the    accompanying    reduction    in    losses  (B]  COMBINED  CITY  AND  SUBURBAN  SERV.CE 

throughout  the  system  from  the  cars  to  the  Here   are   considered   those   lines  giving   a 

coal  pile  on  account  of  the  reduction  in  the  mixed  service  consisting  in  part  of  city  service 

duration   of  peaks   and    the    improved    load  as  defined   above  and   in   part  of  a   service 

factor  with  slow-speed  motors.    Therefore,  the  averaging  four  or  five  stops  per  mile,  with  more 

figures  given  are  conservative.    The  assump-  or  less  well-defined  limits, 

tion  of  equal  gear  reduction  is  fair  because  the  In  this  class  of  service  the  same  general 

maximum  gearing  is  fixed  by  the  power  of  the  principles  hold  as  for  city  service.    The  possi- 

motors  and  the  clearance  between  gear  case  bility   of   using   high-speed    is   only    slightly 

and  track.  greater  than  in  the  city  service  as  the  stops  are 

Now  consider  whether  the  saving  due  to  still  comparatively  frequent, 

less  weight  will  make  up  for  the  loss  in  power  For  example,  assume  that  the  operation  of 

consumption.     If  the  car  under  consideration  a  certain  line  comprises  6  miles  of  city  running 

makes   30,000  miles   annually,   the   car  with  with  nine  stops  per  mile  and  6  miles  of  suburban 

light  high-speed  motors  at  4.21  kilowatt-hours  running  with  five  stops  per  mile.     The  mini- 

per  car-mile  will  consume   126,300  kilowatt-  mum  running  time  without  any  coast  is  68.8 

hours  annually,  while  the  car  with  slow-speed  minutes  for  the  slow-speed  motor  and  68  min- 

motors  will  consume   112,500  kilowatt-hours,  utes  for  the  high  speed  motor,  a  difference  of 

The  annual  saving  is  13,800  kilowatt-hours.  0.8  minute  or  1.16  per  cent.     On  the  basis  of 

At  1  cent  per  kilowatt-hour,  this  amounts  to  a  scheduled  time  of  81  minutes  for  the  run  one 

$138.00.     At  5  cents  per  pound  per  year,  the  way  and  operation  of  the  two  motors  as  shown  in 

high-speed    motor    car  'would    save    $100.00  Figs.  1  and  2,  the  power  consumption  with  the 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES  [ft] 

high-speed  motor  is  42.54  kilowatt-hours  per  limited  schedule  and  yet  of  sufficient  capacity 
trip  and  with  the  slow-speed  motor  is  39.9  to  perform  the  local  service  without  overheating 
kilowatt-hours  per  trip,  the  latter  saving  6.2  is  chosen,  with  the  result  that  the  power  con- 
per  cent  of  the  energy  required  by  the  former,  sumed  in  local  service  is  excessive  and  equip- 
In  this  class  of  service  the  annual  car-mileage  ments  are  heavier  than  need  be  for  the  major 
is  generally  higher  than  in  city  service  portion  of  the  service. 

only,  on  account  of  the  longer  trips,  somewhat  With  the  large  motor  geared  for  a  high- 
higher  average  speeds,  and  smaller  difference  limited  schedule,  the  heating  in  local  service 
between  the  average  and  maximum  number  is  as  great  as  with  the  smaller  motor  properly 
of  cars  required  at  different  times  of  the  geared  for  the  local  service, 
day  and  year.  Assuming  40,000  miles  per  car  Large  high-speed  equipments  collect  their 
yearly  and  power  at  1  cent  per  kilowatt-hour,  toll  all  along  the  line  through  extra  weight, 
the  saving  by  using  the  slow-speed  motor  in-  first  cost,  cost  of  maintenance,  cost  of  power, 
stead  of  the  high-speed  motor  amounts  to  greater  feeder  capacity,  larger  substations  and 
346.00  annually.  larger  power  houses.  Is  it  worth  the  price? 

We  believe  it  is  not.    In  certain  cases  of  keen 

[C]  INTERURBAN  SERVICE  competition  it    may  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a 

Practically  all  interurban  railways  enter  one  necessary   evil,   but  too  often  high   speed   is 

or  more  large  towns  or  cities  over  tracks  laid  assumed  as  the  essential  element  in  building 

in  the  streets  for  several  miles.    This  condi-  and  maintaining  traffic,  when  in  reality  the 

tion    generally    requires    slow-speed    running  frequent  service  and  ability  to  receive  and 

whether  the  stops  are  few  or  frequent  and,  deliver  passengers  at  several  central  points  in 

therefore,   this   part   of  the   service   is   most  the  terminals  and  towns  served  assures  all  the 

economically  maintained  by  the  slowest-speed  profitable  traffic. 

gearing  suitable  for  the  other  service.     Many         In  the  last  analysis  we  believe  that 

of  these  railways  give  both  local  and  limited  extra  cost  of  excessively  high-speed 

service.     It  is  of  course  desirable  to  use  the  service  is  rarely  equalled  by  the  ad< 

same  motor  and  same  gear  ratio  for  both  classes  revenue  obtained  on  account  of  the  exec 

of  service.     With  the  same  gearing,  the  local  speed  over  what  could  be  secure 

service,  because  of  the  more  frequent  stops,  ments  geared  for  moderate  spec, 
will  work  the  motors  more  nearly  up  to  their         Table  II  shows  that  the  energy  ; 

full   capacity  than  will   the   limited   service,  sumption  per  car-mile  for  1 

The  limited  service  is  most  often  considerably  kilowatt-hours  with  75.horsePower  mot 

less  than  half  of  the  total.  2.7  kilowatt-hours  with  »*£*"£^ 

the  local  service,  and  the  limited  schedule  ad-  ively. 

justed  to  suit  the  equipment  and  gearing  best 

adapted  to  the  local  service.  Correct  Operation 

If  a  high-speed  limited  schedule  is  taken  economies 

the  basis  of  choosing  the  gear  rat.o  one  of  two        We  h.    e  show  y  S  rf  ^ 

evils  frequently  results:  (1)  a  small  equipment  "g^^ZS  speed  and  correct  gear: 
geared  for  abnormally  high  speed  smdjus *  ab  o        arm*   ^p  ^  ^  ^  ^ 

to  maintain  the  limited   schedule   nicely  d  b    correct  oper. 

selected  with  the  inevitable  result  of  over  consump non  may  ^  ^ 

heating  the  motors  in  local  service,  roasting  out  amn  o  the         ^  ^  ^  ^  ^ 
the  windings,  loosening  connections  and  con       anon  ^  ^  ^  ^  ^^  th 

suming  an  unwarranted  amount  *£««£     «£        amount  of  coasting  consistent  wth 
(2)  a  large  equipment  geared  to  maintain 


[62] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


the  particular  equipment  used   in  any    given 
service. 

[  A  ]    ACCELERATION 

It  is  frequently  found  that  where  a  road  is 
operating  under  a  fairly  easy  schedule,  the 
motormen  will  accelerate  rather  slowly  and 
perhaps  operate  with  the  motors  connected  in 
series  for  a  considerable  part  of  the  time. 
The  limits  to  the  rate  of  acceleration  are  the 
strains  on  the  car  and  equipment  and  the 
comfort  of  the  passengers,  so  that  all  of  these 
features  should  be  considered  in  determining 
the  maximum  rate  of  acceleration  which  is 
permissible  in  any  given  case.  So  far  as  com- 
fort is  concerned,  rates  of  acceleration  up  to  2 
miles  per  hour  per  second  are  in  use  without 
objection  on  the  part  of  the  passengers. 

Fig.  4  shows  a  run  of  one  mile  at  a  schedule 
speed  of  24  miles  per  hour  with  various  rates 
of  acceleration.  The  car  weight  is  38  tons  and 
the  equipment  comprises  four  motors  each  rat- 
ing 75-horsepower  at  500  volts.  The  braking 
rate  is  constant  at  1.25  miles  per  hour  per 
second.  A  consideration  of  this  figure  shows 
that  by  varying  the  acceleration  from  0.75 
miles  per  hour  per  second  to  1.5  miles  per  hour 
per  second,  the  power  consumption  may  be 
reduced  29.6  per  cent.  It  should  be  noted  in 
this  connection,  however,  that  the  maximum 
current  requirements  vary  from  370  amperes 
per  car  with  the  lowest  rate  of  acceleration 
to  570  amperes  per  car  with  the  highest 
rate  of  acceleration.  Hence,  substation  and 


line  capacity    must  be    considered    in    many 
instances. 

[  B  ]  COASTING 

The  amount  of  coasting  obtained  is  a  fairly 
good  measure  of  the  difference  in  power  con- 
sumption for  a  given  run  made  under  different 
conditions;  because,  when  the  amount  of 
coasting  is  great,  it  usually  means  that  the 
acceleration  is  rapid  and  that  the  braking  rate 
is  also  high.  The  actual  economy  obtained 
by  increasing  the  amount  of  coasting  in  any 
given  service  is  not  effected  during  the  coast- 
ing period  itself,  but  is  the  result  of  (1)  more 
rapid  acceleration  with  power  taken  from  the 
line  a  decreased  proportion  of  the  time  and  (2) 
of  a  higher  braking  rate  with  decreased  waste 
of  energy  in  heating  the  brake  shoes  and  wheels. 

[C]   BRAKING 

Other  things  remaining  the  same,  an  increase 
in  the  braking  rate  produces  a  decrease  in 
power  consumption  because  the  brakes  will  be 
applied  at  a  lower  speed  and  consequently 
there  will  be  less  of  the  stored  energy  of  the 
car  consumed  during  the  braking  period. 
This  saving  is  indicated  directly  by  the  de- 
creased time  during  which  it  is  required  to 
supply  power  to  the  car  in  order  to  maintain 
a  given  schedule. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  same  run  as  in  Fig.  4 
except  that  a  constant  accelerating  rate  is 
maintained  and  the  braking  rate  is  varied. 


Fig.  3 


40  so  ea  100 

\Secon4s 


Figure  3 


Figure  4 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


By  varying  the  braking  rate  from  0.8  miles  per 
hour  per  second  to  2.0  miles  per  hour  per 
second,  the  power  consumption  is  reduced  23.1 


Fig.  9  is  a  general  curve  showing  the  rheo- 
static  losses  in  an  equipment  plotted  against 
the  speed  at  which  the  rheostats  are  all  cut 
out  of  circuit;  the  stored  energy  in  a  car  at 
any  speed ;  and  the  power  input  to  the  car  in 
bringing  it  from  rest  up  to  any  given  speed. 
The  energy  to  propel  a  car  is  utilized  in  heat- 
ing the  electrical  equipment,  overcoming  rheo- 
static  losses  in  starting,  in  heating  brake  shoes 
and  wheels  and  in  overcoming  the  friction  and 
windage  due  to  operating  the  car  in  service. 
The  latter  item  is  the  useful  work  and  is  prac- 
tically constant  for  a  given  service  irrespective 
of  the  method  of  operation. 

By  using  a  motor  so  designed  and  geared 
that  the  rheostats  will  all  be  cut  out  of  circuit 
at  a  low  speed,  the  rheostatic  losses  will  be  be- 
low those  obtained  when  the  rheostats  are  cut 
out  of  circuit  at  a  higher  speed.  With  a  given 
equipment,  increasing  the  rate  of  acceleration 
produces  this  result.  Higher  rates  of  acceler- 
ation permit  the  car  to  coast  to  a  lower  speed 
before  the  brakes  are  applied  and  therefore 
less  energy  is  wasted  in  heating  the  brake 
shoes  and  wheels.  High  rates  of  braking  ac- 
complish the  same  result. 

The  curve  on  Fig.  9  marked  "Rheostatic 
Losses"  shows  what  may  be  accomplished  by 
cutting  out  the  rheostats  more  quickly.  The 
curve  marked  "Stored  Energy  No  Rotational" 


gives  a  measure  of  the  amount  of  energy 
wasted  in  braking  from  any  given  speed  a  ^d 
shows  what  may  be  accomplished  by  applying 

the  brakes  at  a  lower  car  speed.  This  curve 
is  used  in  preference  to  the  one  including  the 
energy  of  rotation  in  armatures,  gears  wheels 
and  axles  since  this  rotational  energy  will  be 
about  balanced  by  the  train  resistance  while 
braking.  The  curves  for  field  control  will  be 
considered  later. 

[IV] 

Field  Control 

The  control  of  the  speed  of  railway  moton 
by  changing  the  effective  turns  on  the  field  is 
as  old  as  railway  motors.  Practically  all  of 
the  early  double  reduction  motors  were  con- 
trolled  in  that  way.  Some  few  single  reduc- 
tion  motors  were  also  controlled  in  that  way 
and  the  old  "loop"  system  was  quite  familiar 
15  years  ago.  It  was  a  failure  at  that  time 
chiefly  because  of  difficulties  with  commutation 
due  to  poor  motor  design.  Its  advantages  have 
remained  fresh  in  the  minds  of  some  engineers, 
however,  and  when  the  locomotives  for  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railway 
were  designed  in  1905,  they  were  arranged  for 


Figure  5 


Figure  6 


[64] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


speed  control  on  direct  current  by  shunting  the 
field.  Forty-one  locomotives  have  been  in 
operation  with  this  system  of  control  on  this 
road  for  the  last  five  years  and  it  has  proven 
entirely  satisfactory. 

When  the  giant  Pennsylvania  locomotives 
were  designed,  the  requirements  for  large 
tractive  effort  in  starting  and  high  maximum 
speed  were  so  severe  that  it  was  necessary  to 
use  field  control  of  the  motors.  The  applica- 
tion was  slightly  different  from  that  of  the  New 
Haven  locomotives,  however ;  instead  of  shunt- 
ing the  field,  half  of  it  is  cut  out  on  the  final 
notches  in  series  and  parallel.  This  is  to  avoid 
having  a  non-inductive  shunt  around  the  field 
which  with  a  solid  frame  machine  might  be 
productive  of  flashing.  This  is  the  scheme 
which  has  since  been  tried  with  great  success 
on  motors  for  city  and  interurban  cars. 

The  question  that  naturally  arises  is,  what 
are  the  advantages  of  this  system  ?  The  answer 
is  brief,  to  save  power.  How  is  this  accom- 
plished ?  On  the  same  general  principle  which 
saves  power  by  the  use  of  slow-speed  motors 
and  high  gear  ratios;  namely,  more  efficient 
acceleration. 

In  Fig.  9,  the  rheostatic  losses  with  field 


control  are  less  than  for  the  same  speed  with 
ordinary  control  because  field  control  is  used 
in  series  in  place  of  the  last  resistance  step. 

Fig.  6  shows  the  speed  and  tractive  effort 
curves  of  a  40-horsepower  field  control  motor 
with  maximum  gear  ratio  and  33-inch  wheels. 

Fig.  7  shows  the  characteristics  of  the  cor- 
responding slow-speed  motor  without  field  con- 
trol, and  Fig.  8,  the  corresponding  light-weight 
motor. 

From  these  curves  it  is  seen  that  the  speed 
of  the  field  control  motor  on  normal  field  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  slow-speed 
motor  without  field  control,  while  the  speed  of 
the  field  control  motor  on  full  field  is  very  low. 
The  full  field  is  used  in  accelerating  and  there- 
fore the  rheostatic  losses  are  greatly  reduced. 
The  normal  speed  is  used  for  running  and 
enables  the  car  to  attain  the  same  speeds  as 
with  the  non-field  control  motor,  so  that  the 
braking  losses  are  not  increased. 

The  following  example  will  serve  to  show 
the  saving  which  may  be  obtained  by  field 
control.  Suppose  that  the  tractive  effort  per 
motor  required  to  give  the  necessary  accelera- 
tion is  1575  pounds.  With  a  non-field  control 
motor  this  takes  75  amperes  and  with  a  field 


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Figure  8 

LEASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


[65] 


contro  motor  only  68.5  amperes  The  rheo-  of  field  control  makes  a  further  reduction  of 
static  losses  are  all  cut  out  at  8.9  miles  per  9.6  per  cent  and  the  combination  of, 
hour  with  field  control  motor,  but  are  not  cut  motor  and  field  control  produces  a 
out  until  a  speed  of  9.9  miles  per  hour  is  reached  19.5  per  cent 
with  the  non-field  control  motor.  Reference  For  a  combined  city  and  suburban  service 
to  the  general  curve  Fig.  9  will  show  that  the  similar  results  are  obtained.  The  application 
corresponding  rheostatic  losses  are  1.07  watt-  of  field  control  to  the  example  of  this  class 
hours  per  ton  with  the  field  control  motor  and  previously  considered  under  Section  II  shows 
1.62  watt-hours  per  ton  with  the  non-field  con-  that  the  field  control  motor  will  make  the  trip 
trol  motor.  In  other  words,  the  field  control  with  35.76  kilowatt-hour  and  therefore  will 
motor  saves  0.55  watt-hours  per  ton  every  save  10.4  per  cent  of  the  power  used  by  the 
time  the  car  starts.  If  the  car  weighs  30  tons  slow-speed  motor  and  15.9  per  cent  of  that 
and  makes  9  stops  and  starts  per  mile,  the  sav-  required  by  the  high-speed  motor. 
ing  is  0.149  kilowatt-hour  per  car-mile.  For  interurban  service,  field  control  produces 

Fig.  3  shows  the  same  run  as  in  Figs.  1  and  2  more  economical  running  over  the  slow-speed 
made  with  the  same  acceleration  as  used  for  city  sections,  permits  the  use  of  a  gear  ratio 
the  slow-speed  motor  in  Fig.  2.  which  is  economical  for  local  service  and  with 

Table  1  gives  the  results  from  Figs.  1,  2  and  the  same  gearing  gives  a  higher  limited  speed 
3.  The  power  consumed  is  3.39  kilowatt-hour  than  could  be  obtained  with  the  same  size  non- 
per  car-mile,  or  9.6  per  cent  less  than  with  field  control  motor  geared  for  the  local  schedule, 
the  slow-speed  motor  of  Fig.  2  and  19.5  (per  This  tends  not  only  toward  economy  in  local 
cent  less  than  with  the  high-speed  motor  of  service,  but  also  toward  reducing  the  motor 
Fig.  1.  In  this  case,  the  use  of  a  slow-speed  capacity  required  for  the  operation  of  frequent- 
motor  instead  of  a  high-speed  motor  reduces  stop  local  service  and  high-speed  limited  scnr- 
power  consumption  10.9  per  cent  while  the  use  ice  with  the  same  gear  ratio. 

A  75-horsepower  field  control  motor  geared 
for  the  local  service,  as  heretofore  described, 
and  operating  as  shown  in  Fig.  10,  will  main- 
tain a  limited  schedule  speed  of  38.4  miles  per 
hour,  which  is  the  same  as  that  possible  with 
the  next  size  larger  non-field  control  motor.  At 
the  same  time  the  reduction  in  power  consump- 
tion is  15.9  per  cent  for  local  service  and  11.7 
per  cent  for  limited  service.  The  power  con- 


AMLKIS  OF  POWER  CONSUMPTION 
IN  STRAIGHT  LINE  ACCELERATION 

Based  on  I  Ton 
Weight 

Motor  efficiency  at  full  Voltage  fS/i 
Acceleration  1.7  M.P.H.P.S. 

Accelerating  Power          IS3  Lbs 
Control  Series  Parallel 
Series  parallel  with  Field  Control 
9 


Figure  9 


Figure  10 


[66] 


INCREASING   CAR   OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


sumption  in  limited  service  is  somewhat  more 
than  with  the  ordinary  75-horsepower  motor 
on  account  of  the  faster  schedule  speed  main- 
tained with  the  field  control  motor.  The  com- 
parative results  are  shown  in  Table  II. 

[v] 

Results  of  Tests 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  number  of  tests 
have  been  made  on  cars  operating  in  regular 
service,  the  results  of  which  show  that  our 
contentions  in  respect  to  proper  gearing  and 
armature  speed,  correct  operation  and  field 
control  are  correct  in  practice  as  well  as  in 
theory. 

Table  IV  shows  the  results  of  tests  made  in 
December,  1910,  under  the  direction  of  the 
writer,  on  the  Frankstown  Avenue  line  of  the 
Pittsburgh  Railways  Company.  The  cars  and 
equipments  in  this  case  were  identical  except 
for  gear  ratio. 

Test  "A"  was  made  with  a  slow-speed 
gearing,  while  test  "B"  was  made  with  a  higher 
speed  gearing.  A  comparison  of  the  service 
conditions  shows  that  they  were  approximately 
the  same,  the  slightly  higher  schedule  speed 
in  test  "B"  being  balanced  by  the  somewhat 
fewer  stops  and  slow-downs,  shorter  duration 
of  stop  and  decreased  average  passenger  load. 
The  railway  company  had  in  service  a  number 
of  cars  equipped  as  for  test  "B."  The  car 
geared  as  for  test  "A"  was  operated  in  regular 
service  for  a  considerable  period  of  time  prior 
to  the  tests  and  proved  itself  capable  of  main- 
taining the  schedule  equally  as  well  as  the 
car  geared  for  higher  speed. 

It  will  be  noted  that  not  only  did  the  tests 
show  that  the  low-speed  gearing  effected  a 
saving  of  13.8  per  cent  in  the  power  consump- 
tion but  they  also  showed  that,  whereas  the 
equipments  with  the  high-speed  gearing  were 
operating  with  dangerous  temperature  rise, 
with  the  low-speed  gearing  the  heating  of  the 
motors  was  just  within  safe  limits.  All  equip- 
ments of  these  same  motors  installed  since 
these  tests  were  made,  have  been  provided 
with  the  low-speed  gears. 

In  Volume  29,  page  1484,  of  the  A.  I.  E.  E. 
Transactions,  Mr.  H.  St.  Clair  Putnam  makes 


the  following  statement  regarding  the  use  of 
coasting  clocks  on  the  Manhattan  Elevated 
Railway  in  New  York: 

"The  result  of  these  calculations  and  tests 
shows  that  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of 
coasting  from  12  per  cent  to  37.5  per  cent 
will  effect  a  saving  of  24  per  cent  in  the  power 
required  for  traction." 

The  report  of  tests,  made  on  cars  of  the 
Chicago  Railway  Company,  as  given  in  the 
Electric  Railway  Journal,  Volume  38,  pages 
1192  and  1200,  shows  that  increasing  the 
accelerating  and  braking  rates  (through  the  use 


Table  I 


Motor  Type 

Light 
Weight 

Standard 

Field 
Control 

Light 
Weight 

Standard 

Field 
Control 

Length  of  run  —  feet  

587 

587 

587 

1056 

1056 

1056 

Time  of  run  —  seconds  
Stops  per  mile  

43.4 
9 

43.4 
9 

43.4 
9 

61 
5 

61 
5 

61 
5 

Length  of  stop  —  seconds.  .  . 
Scheduled  speed  —  m.p.h.  .  . 
Braking  rate  —  m.p.h.p.s.  .  . 
Motor  equipment  

7 
9.2 
1.25 
4-40  h.p. 

7 
9.2 

1.25 
4-10  h.p. 

7 
9.2 
1.25 
4-40  h.p. 

7 
11.8 
1.25 
4-40  h.p. 

7 
11.8 
1.25 
4-40  h.p. 

7 
11.8 
1.25 
4-40  h.p. 

Gear  ratio  —  33-in.  wheels.  . 

Motor  r.p.m.  at  40  h.p.  at 
500  volts  

5.12 
608 

5.12 
526 

5.12 
445 

5.12 
608 

5.12 
526 

5.12 
445 

Amperes   at   full   load   of 

72 

72 

73 

72 

72 

73 

Car  weight,  equipped  and 
loaded  —  tons  

29 

30 

30 

29 

30 

30 

Accelerating  current  —  am- 
peres per  motor  

75 

75 

68.5 

75 

75 

68.5 

Accelerating  rate  — 

1  5 

1  88 

1.88 

1.5 

1.88 

1.88 

Speed  at  which  rheostats 
are  all  out  

12.4 

9.9 

8.9 

12.4 

9.9 

8.9 

Coasting  time  —  seconds  .  .  . 
Speed  at  time  brakes  are 

7.5 
16  2 

7.5 
15 

10.8 
14.5 

19.8 
15.3 

13.3 

16 

20.8 

14.7 

Watt.-hr.  per  ton-mile  
Sq.  rt.  mn.  sq.  amp.  per 
motor  

145 
38.3 

125 
33.3 

113 

32.4 

99.3 
33.9 

96.7 
30.4 

85.7 
29.7 

Temp,  rise  in  service  from 

65 

47 

45 

50 

42 

40 

Kw.-hr.  per  car-mile  

4.21 

3.75 

3.39 

2.88 

2.90 

2.57 

Table  II 


Motor  Type 

Standard 

Field 
Control 

Standard 

Standard 

Field 
Control 

Standard 

Length  of  run  —  miles  
Time  of  run  —  seconds  
Length  of  stop  —  seconds.  .  . 
Schedule  speed  —  m.p.h.  .  .  . 
Accelerating  rate  — 

1 

150 
12.5 
24 

1.25 

1 

150 
12.5 
24 

1.25 

1 
150 
12.5 
24 

1.25 

6 
611.8 
60 
35.3 

1.25 

6 
563 
60 
38.4 

1.25 

6 
563 
60 
38.4 

1.25 

Braking  rate  —  m.p.h.p.s.  .  . 

1.25 
4-75  h.p. 

1.25 
4-75  h.p. 

1.25 
4-90  h.p. 

1.25 
4-75  h.p. 

1.25 
4-75  h.p. 

1.25 
4-90  h.p. 

Amperes   at  full   load   of 

130 

130 

156 

130 

130 

156 

Car  weight,  equipped  and 

38 

39.5 

38 

38 

39.5 

Accelerating  current  —  am- 

127 

122 

177.5 

127 

122 

177.6 

Speed  at  which  rheostats 
are  all  out  —  m.p.h  .... 
Coasting  time  —  seconds.  .  . 
Speed  at  which  brakes  are 

21.3 
60 

27.1 

20.3 
70 

26 

28.2 
77.5 

25.7 

21.3 
67.8 

30 

20.3 
86.2 

30 

28.2 
86.7 

30 

Kw-hr.  per  car-mile  

2.4 

2.27 

2.70 

2.025 

2.11 

2.39 

Watt-hr.  per  ton-mile  
Temp,  rise  in  service  from 
air  25  degrees  C  

63.2 
58°C. 

59.7 
60°C. 

68.4 
70°C. 

53.4 
50°C. 

55.5 
58°C. 

60.5 
60"C. 

INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


[67] 


of  coasting  clocks)  will  save  15.6  per  cent  of  easily  that  the  gearing  is  being  changed  from 
the  power  required  for  traction  without  special  4.06  to  4.73  in  order  to  reduce  the  -ale 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  motorman,  and  that  mands.  Incidentally  it  may  be  noted  that 
it  is  possible  and  practicable  to  increase  this  one  of  the  dangers  previously  mentioned  in 
saving  to  27  per  cent.  This  report  also  shows  connection  with  the  application  of  coastine 
that  there  is  a  saving  m  brake  shoes  amount-  clocks  is  beginning  to  show  itself  here  as  the 
m«  t°l40'8  uper  ucent'  Chicago  report  states  that  the  running  iimc  for 
Both  of  the  above  reports  show  what  can  be  the  cars  on  the  line  tested  has  been  reduced  3 
accomplished  by  correct  operation  as  induced  minutes.  In  any  such  case,  care  should  be 
by  the  application  of  coasting  time  recorders,  exercised  to  determine  what  effect  upon  the 
It  should  be  noted  in  connection  with  the  heating  of  the  motors  such  a  reduction  in  run- 
Chicago  Railway  Company  service  that  the  ning  time  may  produce  before  faster  schedules 


equipments    now    maintain    the    schedule    so 


Table  III 

Tests  in  New  York  Showing  Effect  of  Gear  Ratio  and 
Field  Control  on  Power  Consumption 


S3 

| 

j 

• 

2 

ff 

H"8 

i 

"i 

la 

•§£<• 

0 

1 

a 

sw 

1 

CUJJ 

I 

f- 

1 

fca 

1 

2 

«si 

ii 

i«s 

^1 

8 

So 

S 

B""* 

H 

a 

i 

D  J 

"S  8 

s 

"«H 

H 

1 

1 

• 

O 

J 
CO 

^2 

Iss 

* 

1 

20.214 

Standard 

560 

4.6 

6.975 

2.86 

8.503 

7.126 

557 

152.26 

60  h.p. 

*2 

19.729 

Standard 

550 

5.12 

6.778 

3.08 

7.765 

7.261 

556 

141.63 

40  h.p. 

Field 

T3 

20.153 

Control 

445 

5.12 

8.333 

3.11 

7.240 

7.142 

551 

133.85 

40  h.p. 

Field 

4 

19.714 

Control 

445 

5.12 

6.881 

3.56 

7.335 

7.409 

555 

124.41 

40  h.p. 

2— Saves  7  per  cent  of  power  used  by  1.    Reason— 12  per  cent  less  car  speed  at  40  h.p. 

3_SaVes  5.5  per  cent  of  power  used  by  2.    Reason— field  control. 

4 — gaves  7  per  cent  of  power  used  by  3.    Reason— fewer  stops. 

4— Saves  12  per  cent  of  power  used  by  2.    Reason— field  control. 

'Normal  field  on  field  control  motor. 

tin  congested  district  ran  in  series  only. 


Table  IV 

Tests  on  Frankstown  Avenue 

(Line  of  Pittsburgh  Railways  Company) 

Showing  Effect  of  Gear  Ratio  on  Power  Consumption 
and  Motor  Heating 


Items 

A 

B 

_ 

49000 
23000 
4-50  h.p. 
4.6 
9.15 
8.7 
1.94 
6.8 
37 
483 
137 

68.8 

49000 
23000 
4-50  h.p. 
3.67 
9.50 
8.63 
1  37 
6.2 
30 
480 
160 

87.8 

—             '  — 

Motors  

Gear  ratio  —  33-inch  wheels  
Schedule  speed  —  m.p.h  

Slow-downs  per  mile  •  
Average  duration  of  stops—  seconds  
Average  passenger  load  

Average  voltage  •  
Aviate  "m^ratuVrrile'  on'  armatures  corrected  to  25  d'e- 

Reason— correct  gearing. 


trips  wUhouUrailer,  followed  by  two  round  tnps  with  tnu 


are  adopted  generally.  More  or  less  protection 
against  too  rapid  acceleration  may  be  secured 
by  careful  circuit-breaker  adjustments  or  auto- 
matic acceleration,  or  by  a  graduated  scale 
with  respect  to  the  bonus  offered  motormcn  in 
connection  with  their  coasting  time  records. 

Table  III  shows  the  result  of  a  series  of  tests 
made  on  the  cars  of  the  Metropolitan  Street 
Railway  Company  of  New  York  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  H.  H.  Adams.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  table  by  comparing  tests  1  and  2 
that  the  use  of  a  slower  speed  armature  and 
greater  gear  reduction  effected  a  power  saving 
of  7  per  cent.  In  test  3,  throughout  the  con- 
gested district  the  equipments  were  operated 
in  series  only  and  then  operated  in  series  and 
parallel  on  the  remainder  of  the  runs.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  this  test  shows  nearly  23  per 
cent  more  stops  than  test  2,  the  power  con- 
sumption was  decreased  5.5  per  cent  due  to 
the  use  of  field  control. 

In  test  4  the  number  of  stops  and  other  serv- 
ice conditions  are  practically  the  same  as  in 
tests  1  and  2  but  the  motors  were  operated 
making  full  use  of  the  field  control  in  series 
and  parallel  over  the  entire  line.  This  test 
showed  7  per  cent  less  power  consumption 
than  test  3  with  its  greater  number  of  stops 
and  12  per  cent  saving  in  power  in  comparison 
with  test  2,  where  the  service  conditions  were 
practically  the  same.  Substantially  all  of  this 
saving  was  due  to  the  use  of  the  field  contr 
motor  in  test  4  as  against  the  non-field  control 
motor  in  test  2.  In  this  connection,  it  should 
be  noted  that  while  the  60-horsepower  moto 
test  1  showed  an  average  temperature  ns 
about  48  degrees  Centi-r.ide  corrected  to  air 
at  25  degrees  Centinr.uk-.  the  40-horsqxnver 


[68] 


INCREASING   CAR   OPERATION    ECONOMIES 


motors  in  test  4  showed  only  58  degrees  Centri- 
grade  temperature  rise,  which  is  still  a  perfectly 
safe  operating  condition. 

Tests  recently  made  on  various  lines  of  the 
Pacific  Electric  Railway  showed  an  average 
power  consumption  of  97.3  watt-hours  per  ton- 
mile  with  quadruple  75-horsepower,  650-revo- 
lutions-per-minute  motors  geared  2.18 :1.  Other 
75-horsepower,  640-revorutions-per-minute  mo- 
tors geared  3.24:1  showed  an  average  power 
consumption  of  87  watt-hours  per  ton-mile. 

The  latter  motor  with  field  control  showed 
an  average  power  consumption  of  81  watt-hours 
per  ton-mile. 

These  figures  indicate  that  proper  gearing 
would  effect  a  power  saving  of  10.6  per  cent  in 
this  service,  while  the  application  of  field  control 
would  produce  a  further  saving  of  about  6.9  per 
cent  and  the  total  saving  which  could  be  obtain- 
ed by  the  use  of  correct  gearing  in  combination 
with  field  control  will  be  about  16.8  per  cent. 


It  is  interesting  to  note  further  in  this  con- 
nection that  the  average  temperature  rise  of 
the  motors,  corrected  to  air  at  25  degrees 
Centigrade,  in  the  most  severe  service  was 
80.5  degrees  Centigrade  for  the  motors  geared 
for  high  speed  and  51.2  degrees  Centigrade 
for  the  field  control  motors.  Temperatures 
on  the  non-field  control  motor  geared  for  low 
speed  in  this  service  are  not  available  at 
the  present  time. 

Summing  up  the  results  of  calculations  and 
tests  as  previously  described  in  detail,  it  is 
found  that  proper  gearing  and  armature  speed, 
correct  operation  and  field  control,  are  essential 
to  the  most  economical  operation  of  railway 
service  and  the  indications  are  that  from 
10  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  of  the  power  now 
consumed  in  specific  cases  may  be  saved 
by  a  careful  study  of  the  operating  con- 
ditions and  the  intelligent  application  of  these 
principles. 


Chapter  Five 

Car  Operation  Efficiency — with  Special  Reference  to 

Energy-Input  Method  of  Determining 

Motornlen's  Efficiency 


Chapter  Five 


Car  Operation  Efficiency 

With  Special  Reference  to  Energy-Input  Method  of  Determining 

Motormen's  Efficiency 


BY  C.  C.  CHAPPELLE 

Consulting  Engineer  and  Vice-President 
The  Railway  Improvement  Company 


THE  Feb.  19,  1916,  issue  of  the  Electric 
Railway  Journal,  contained  a  com- 
munication from  Mr.  C.  H.  Koehler, 
commenting  on  the  writer's  article,  "Funda- 
mental Principles  of  Car  Operation  Effici- 
ency" appearing  in  Jan.  15,  1916,  issue  of  the 
Electric  Railway  Journal,  which  article  is 
Chapter  Two  of  this  volume. 

Mr.  Koehler's  criticisms  may  suggest  to 
some  readers  that  the  general  fundamental 
principles  (Chapter  Two)  are  not  applicable  and 
controlling  for  the  attainment  of  efficiency 
under  practical  operating  conditions. 

The  analysis  of  the  fundamental  principles 
discussed  in  Chapter  Two,  hereof,  covers  the 
principles  involved  for  the  attainment  of  effi- 
ciency and  was  made  without  any  thought 
or  intention  of  "several  misleading  compari- 
sons made  of  two  devices  now  on  the  market 
for  determining  motormen's  efficiencies,  etc." 
that  it  appears  has  been  interpreted  therefrom. 

The  solution  of  the  efficiency  problems  con- 
fronting electric  railways,  must  ultimately  be 
squarely  met  and  solved  by  the  effective  prac- 
tical application  of  the  fundamental  principles. 

With  the  view  of  furthering  a  better  under- 
standing of  such  principles  we  will  dignify 
Mr.  Koehler's  critical  comments  by  showing 
their  relations  to  both  principles  and  practice. 

The  Efficiency  Problem 
The  efficiency  problem  is  not  one  of  contro- 
versy as  to  methods,  but  is  one  involving  the 
consideration  and  analysis  of  principles  and 
factors  definitely  determining  and  controlling 
the  limitations  of  attainable  efficiency  for  the 
given  traffic  conditions. 


Power  reduction  is  one  of  the  results  obtained 
by  better  efficiency  in  operation.  The  funda- 
mental principles  demonstrate  that  power  in- 
put, for  given  equipment  and  traffic  condi- 
tions, is  determined  and  controlled  by  certain 
factors,  some  of  which  are  entirely,  some  par- 
tially and  others  not  at  all  under  the  control 
of  the  motorman. 

The  adaptability  of  methods  for  checking 
efficiency  in  the  use  of  power  must  be  con- 
sidered from  the  standpoint  of  whether  check- 
ing the  result  (power  input  at  the  car)  or  check- 
ing the  factors  controlling  and  determining 
such  result  is  most  effective  to  secure  the  at- 
tainable efficiency. 

Some  undoubtedly  believe  checking  the 
result  is  the  preferable  system  and  Mr.  Koeh- 
ler's criticism  being  from  such  viewpoint,  it 
becomes  desirable  to  analyze  somewhat  in 
detail  his  suggestions  and  show  their  relations 
to  the  general  principles. 

Practical  Principles  and  Law 
of  Averages 

The  first  practical  principle  that  Mr.  Koehler 
overlooks  is  that  the  manufacturer  and  the 
user  of  motor  equipment  select  equipment  and 
gear    ratio   suitable   for   operation   with    the 
motors   in   multiple   for  the   normal  average 
traffic  conditions.    The  second  principle  is  the 
basis  for  the  application  of  the  "law  of  ;r 
ages."     The  writer's  article  of  Jan.   i 
(Chapter  Two),  applies  the  law  of  aver 
based  on  the  averages  encountered  in  i 
operations  in  reference  to  well-known  varia- 
tions in  certain  factors  recognized  as  affecting 
practical  operating  results.      These  average 


[72]  INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 

were  analyzed  by  the  well-known  and  recog-  Between  the  normal  mode  of  multiple  opera- 

nized  accurate  method  of  plotting  speed-time  tion  and  the  series  operation,  which  is  advan- 

and  power  diagrams  based  on  the  character-  tageous  under  certain  conditions  of  congested 

istic  performance  curves  for  the  motor  equip-  traffic,  an  intermediate  mode  of  operation  is 

ment.  Such  analyses  and  the  conclusions  there-  possible,  i.e.,  pausing  a  few  seconds  in  series 

from   as  to   the   fundamental   principles   and  position   then   notching  up   to   full   multiple, 

factors    controlling    and    limiting    attainable  Such  operation  follows  the  governing  laws  of 

efficiencies  and  the  effective  manner  to  secure  the  fundamental  principles.    Its  use  under  the 

such  efficiencies,  are  based  on  multiple  opera-  predominating   railway   conditions   that   con- 

tion  of  the  equipment,  because,  as  before  stated,  template  multiple  operation  will  show  a  loss, 

multiple  is  the  normal  operation  contemplated  as  in  reality  it  is  only  an  equivalent  average 

by  both  the  manufacturer  and  user  of  the  lower  rate  of  acceleration.     Under  the  rather 

equipment,  as  suiting  the  average  conditions  infrequent  traffic  conditions  where  advantages 

predominating   for   the   aggregate   operations  of  series  operation  are  relatively  small  compared 

encountered  in  regular  operating  practice.  with  multiple  operation,  pausing  on  the  series 

Every   practical   operator   knows   that   the  position  of  the  controller  obviously  possesses 

length  of  a  one-way  trip  on  the  average  rail-  advantages. 

way  route  is  anywhere  from  2  miles  to  10  miles,  Practical  operating  results,  however,  demon- 
depending  upon  the  layout  of  the  city  and  the  strate  that  best  results  are  obtained  with  few 
plan  of  routing.  Probably  4  miles  to  5  miles  and  simple  rules  for  the  direction  of  the  motor- 
approximates  the  average  length  for  the  typical  man.  The  conditions  for  the  aggregate  of 
one-way  trip  of  the  average  railway.  For  operations  and  the  selected  equipment  con- 
example,  the  average  equivalent  number  of  templates  multiple  operation,  as  before  stated, 
stops  per  mile  on  the  Madison  Avenue  line  Increase  in  the  rates  of  acceleration  and  brak- 
(Chicago  Surface  Lines),  having  one  terminus  ing  within  the  limitation  of  the  equipment 
in  the  congested  loop  district,  has  been  found  and  the  comfort  of  the  passengers  result  in 
to  be  approximately  nine  stops  per  mile.  increased  coasting  and  corresponding  reduction 

The  writer's  article  of  Jan.  15,  1916,  states  in  power  for  the  equipment  operated  at  the 

that  the  car  and  equipment  selected  by  Mr.  schedule  speeds  and  traffic  conditions  encoun- 

Koehler  as  the  basis  for  his  "example"  is  used  tered  under  the  average  conditions  of  railway 

on  a  typical  line  of  a  well-known  company  operations.     Therefore,  pausing  on  the  series 

having  an  average  equivalent  of  five  stops  per  position    of    the    controller    should    be    dis- 

mile.      An  average  equivalent  of  seven  and  couraged    to    obtain    the    best    efficiency    in 

one-half  stops  per  mile  approximates  the  typi-  practical  operation. 

cal  conditions  on  the  average  railway  route.  The   foregoing   mentioned   series   operation 

With  equipment  selected  for  normal  opera-  and   pausing  on   series   position  of  controller 

tion  in  multiple,  at  the  schedule  speeds  usually  seems  to  be  the  basis  of  Mr.  Koehler's  discov- 

encountered  upon  any  given  route  in  connec-  ery,  and  upon  which  he  builds  his  "example" 

tion  with  the  equivalent  average  number  of  in  connection  with  which  is  mentioned  the  old 

stops  thereon,  short  runs  are  encountered  be-  gastronomical  adage,  "The  proof  of  thepud- 

tween  stops  (particularly  in  the  congested  dis-  ding  is  in  the  eating."    Having  selected  such 

trict   of  the   traffic   terminus),   for  which,   if  an  isolated  example  based  on  his  Cycle  I  run, 

normal    multiple    operation    is    followed,    the  equivalent  to  over  twenty  stops  per  mile,  Mr. 

controller  must  be  thrown  off  at  or  near  full  Koehler  proceeds  to  wreck  the  entire  basis  of 

multiple  position.      For  such  short  runs  the  the   fundamental   principles   involved    in   car 

rheostatic  losses  from  full  series  to  full  multiple  operation  efficiency,  and  thereby  demonstrates 

position  are  so  great  relatively  that  a  saving  that  the  writer's  "conclusions  must  have  been 

in  power  will  result  if  such  a  short  run  is  made  in  based  on  unsound  premises" ! 

full    series    without    attempting    the    normal  Mr.  Koehler  has  outlined  clearly  the  basis 

multiple  operation.  of  his  proposed  proper  method  of  operation, 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


MO     35 


SO     95     100    106    IV     US    GO    /&    Bd  O&    H&  ft 


Time  in  Seconds 

Figure  1-B 

Operating  Data  Graphs  for  Typical  Runs  of  Different  Lengths 


and  it  is  easy  to  show  a  little  further  the 
application  of  his  principles  to  the  reasonable 
limitations  of  traffic  conditions  encountered 
in  ordinary  every-day  average  practical 
operations. 

In  the  accompanying  Fig.  1-B  we  have  shown 
the  application  of  Mr.  Koehler's  principles 
and  selected  equipment  in  three  sets  of  dia- 
grams. Cycles  I  and  II  are  Mr.  Koehler's 'cor- 
responding runs  of  one  block  and  three  blocks 
respectively,  making  his  total  run  of  four 
blocks,  with  an  average  of  ten  stops  per  mile 
for  a  run  of  0.2  mile,  or  a  distance  approxi- 
mately only  5  per  cent  of  the  average  one-way 
trip.  For  these  runs  he  has  assumed  an  aver- 
age number  of  stops  11  per  cent  higher  than 
upon  one  of  the  most  congested  lines  of  Chi- 
cago, 33^3  per  cent  higher  than  the  average 
number  of  stops  hereinbefore  mentioned  as 
typical  of  the  average  railway  line,  and  just 
double  the  number  of  stops  mentioned  as  the 
average  for  the  particular  equipment  on  the  line 
of  Company  B  in  the  writer's  article  of  Jan.  15. 

We  do  not  contemplate  dragging  the  reader 
through  a  series  of  diagrams  for  the  entire 
length  of  the  average  typical  line  route,  but 
we  have  in  Cycle  III  one  additional  run  of 
only  four  blocks,  to  be  made  immediately  fol- 
lowing Mr.  Koehler's  Cycles  I  and  II.  Such 
a  run  is  certainly  well  within  the  reasonable 
practical  probabilities,  for  Cycles,  I,  II  and  III 
aggregate  only  a  total  run  of  0.4  mile  or  ap- 
proximately 10  per  cent  of  the  average  one- 
way trip.  In  connection  with  such  a  short  total 
run  the  equivalent  average  number  of  stops 
is  seven  and  one-half  per  mile,  or  approxi- 
mately that  encountered  in  average  practice 

In  Table  I-B  is  shown  a  summary  of  the  data 


for  diagrams  A,  B  and  C  of  Cycles  I,  II  and 
III  (Fig.  1-B),  also  for  the  total  run  composed  of 
Cycles  I  and  II  and  the  total  run  composed  of 
Cycles  I,  II  and  III.  The  diagrams  A  repre- 
sent the  performance  of  Mr.  Koehler's  Motor- 
man  A  defined  as  "after  a  coasting  record." 
Diagrams  B  represent  the  performance  of  his 
Motorman  B,  represented  as  having  definite 
anticipatory  knowledge  in  reference  to  the 

Table  I-B  E 

SUM  MART   or  DATA   FOB   DIAGRAM  § 
SHOWN  FOB  CTCLCS  I.  II  AND  III 


U 
259 


U 
791 


Length  of  run — feet 

Corresponding  number  stops 

per  mile  20.23 

Acceleration — A  and  B,  m.p.h.- 
p.s   1.5 

Acceleration,    C,   m.p.h.p.s 1.25 

Schedule  Time  A,  B  and  C — 

7  stops  1  mile 31.40  610 

Schedule  speed  A,  B  and  C— 
m.p.h 6.03  10.U  1 


1.002     1.0(4)     2.11 : 


0.03       4.97     1000         76 


1.6 
1.26 


15 

i :; 


1.6 

i :-, 


1.6 
1  24 


67.15     S4.4t  M:  JS 


Seconds  coasting — A    13.3 

Seconds  coasting — B    

Seconds  coasting — C    1.5 


141     10.13 
216,     4M 

17 .7 

pl^iTc0^(nS-\  :::::::::  j  n.a  -lu  , 

Per  cent  coasting— B    20.04     3160 

SSSfsaffl^.: ::::::::    4j    £»  gg   *• 
JSSSStS  ::::::::::          ;  ; 
BSS8£SSS?3ti      i 

Kilowatt-hours  per  car-mile— C     3.543     1410     113*     1WI 
Increase  In  per  cent  coasting  A  —  ^ 

over  per  cent  coasting  B. . 
Per   cent   saving-power   for   A 

£rAB..™ferred.."  ..P°Wer-«."     "••       »•>     ~4IJ     114T 

Increase  in  per  cent  coasting  A  -_    .     ..  4J 

over  per  cent  coasting  C....     37.57     21.51 
Per   cent    saving-power   f 

forerA°    referre<  "—121     10.17     31  >         5»: 

Note    (Mode  of  Operation) 
Motorman.  A— Normal  operation,  straight  up  to  multlpl* 

or  pausing  In  Mii«*   for  •   f*w 


Br»ik*n$?  r«ic  *^»  ««  **  -  ^^^- 

TV-iin    in**1    COlUlilUF  rtwBtSlH^   *w   l»   9^*   W^ 

^tit  ro. -jr****. -g£j "SSSSSV 

^ration  for  which  a  ^^gL "ff^.ff.jl-aj    tto 

.  ^_,__  up  straight  into  multiple. 


[74] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION    ECONOMIES 


stop  requirements  of  traffic  conditions;  dia- 
grams C  represent  the  performance  of  a  third 
Motorman  C,  whom  we  have  taken  the 
liberty  of  introducing  and  who  has  the  same 
anticipatory  powers  claimed  for  Motorman  B. 
Motorman  C  has  noted  from  watching  a  certain 
device  "placed  in  view  of  the  motorman"  that 
the  amperes  drawn  during  the  acceleration 
period  is  less  if  he  accelerate  at  1.25  miles  per 
hour  per  second  instead  of  the  wasteful  rush 
of  amperes  which  he  has  observed  when  using 
the  accelerating  rate  of  1J^  miles  per  hour  per 
second  of  diagrams  A  and  B. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  results  for  diagrams 
A  and  B,  Cycles  I  and  II,  and  for  the  total  run 
composed  of  Cycles  I  and  II,  are  somewhat 
different  from  the  results  of  Mr.  Koehler's 
similar  diagrams,  which  we  have  endeavored 
to  reproduce  from  the  data  of  his  article, 
Motorman  A  being  even  more  wasteful  than 
found  by  Mr.  Koehler  for  Cycle  I,  and  some- 
what improved  in  Cycle  II,  and  the  total  run 
composed  of  Cycles  I  and  II.  Table  I-B, 
however,  gives  the  complete  data,  whereby 
anyone  desiring  can  check  any  discrepancies 
in  the  results  by  constructing  the  speed-time 
and  power  diagrams. 

The  diagrams  have  been  constructed  using 
Mr.  Koehler's  suggested  retarding  force  of  20 
Ibs.  per  ton  for  train  and  coasting  resistance 
instead  of  that  used  in  the  writer's  former 
article  (Chapter  Two)  for,  as  commented  by 
Mr.  W.  B.  Potter  in  his  communication  (Elec- 
tric Railway  Journal,  Jan.  29,  1916),  such 
modification  does  not  "detract  from  the  gen- 
eral conclusions  of  the  article." 

Motormen's  Operations 
by  Diagram 

The  reasonableness  and  simplicity  of  dia- 
grams applied  to  practical  operations,  as  also 
the  unreasonableness  of  befogging  general  prin- 
ciples and  practice  by  a  strained  special 
example,  will  be  apparent  from  the  considera- 
tion of  the  detailed  operations  of  Motormen 
A,  B  and  C,  as  shown  from  the  diagrams  of 
Fig.  I-B  and  Table  I-B,  as  follows: 

For  Cycle  I  (run  of  only  one  block  of  259  ft.) 
the  factors  are  as  follows: 


Motorman  A,  following  the  mode  of  normal  operation 
contemplated  in  the  selection  of  the  equipment  as  suit- 
ing the  average  traffic  conditions,  notches  straight  up 
to  multiple  at  the  rate  of  1.5  miles  per  hour  per  second, 
gets  bell  to  stop  in  7.2  seconds  after  starting,  throws 
off  power,  coasts  13.3  seconds  and  brakes  at  the  rate  of 
2  miles  per  hour  per  second  and  makes  a  7-second  stop 
at  the  end  of  the  first  block. 

Motorman  B  accelerates  to  the  series  position  of  the 
controller  at  a  rate  of  1.5  miles  per  hour  per  second, 
but  in  anticipation  of  a  stop  or  from  general  sluggishness 
pauses  on  the  series  position,  gets  bell  to  stop  7.2  seconds 
after  starting,  continues  in  series  until  13.6  seconds  from 
starting,  throws  off  power,  coasts  6.3  seconds,  brakes  at 
rate  of  2  miles  per  hour  per  second  and  makes  a  7-second 
stop  at  the  end  of  the  first  block. 

Motorman  C,  in  anticipation  of  a  stop  or  from  a 
wrong  conception  of  the  relation  of  amperes  observed  as 
required  for  different  rates  of  acceleration,  or  from 
being  even  a  little  more  sluggish  by  nature  than  B, 
accelerates  to  the  series  position  of  the  controller  at  the 
rate  of  1.25  miles  per  hour  per  second,  pauses  on  the 
series  position,  gets  bell  to  stop  7.2  seconds  after  starting, 
continues  in  series  until  17.6  seconds  from  starting  (in 
order  to  make  the  schedule),  throws  off  power,  coasts  1.5 
seconds,  brakes  at  the  rate  of  2  miles  per  hour  per  second 
and  makes  a  7-second  stop  at  the  end  of  the  first  block. 

For  Cycle  II  (run  of  three  blocks,  totaling 
791  ft.)  the  factors  are  as  follows: 

Motorman  A  accelerates  in  the  manner  and  for  the 
reasons  outlined  for  Cycle  I  to  full  multiple,  continues 
in  multiple  until  he  attains  the  speed  which  his  experi- 
ence and  judgment  have  established  as  suitable  for  the 
probable  traffic  conditions  considered  in  relation  to  the 
time-element  factors  controlling  his  ultimate  efficiency, 
with  maintenance  of  schedule,  then  throws  off  power, 
coasts  27.6  seconds,  brakes  at  2  miles  per  hour  per  sec- 
ond and  makes  the  7-second  stop  called  for  the  end  of 
the  third  block  of  this  three-block  run. 

Motorman  B  accelerates  in  the  manner  and  for  the 
reasons  outlined  for  Cycle  I  to  the  series  position, 
pauses  on  the  series  position  7.5  seconds  (for  the  bell 
that  came  not),  then  passes  to  multiple  and  continues 
in  multiple  a  sufficient  time  to  make  up  for  the  delay 
caused  by  pausing  on  series  with  maintenance  of  sched- 
ule, then  coasts  20.4  seconds,  brakes  at  2  miles  per  hour 
per  second  and  makes  the  7-second  stop  called  for  the 
end  of  the  third  block  of  this  three-block  run. 

Motorman  C  accelerates,  in  the  manner  and  for  the 
reasons  outlined  for  Cycle  I,  to  the  series  position, 
pauses  on  the  series  position  8.8  seconds  (for  the  bell 
that  came  not),  then  passes  to  multiple  and  continues 
in  multiple  a  sufficient  time  to  make  up  for  his  delays 
caused  by  slow  acceleration  and  pausing  on  series,  with 
maintenance  of  schedule,  then  coasts  16.2  seconds, 
brakes  at  2  miles  per  hour  per  second  and  makes  the  7- 
second  stop  called  for  end  of  third  block  of  this  three- 
block  run. 

For  Cycle  III  (run  of  four  blocks,  totaling 
1056  ft.)  the  factors  are  as  follows: 

Motorman  A  accelerates,  in  the  manner  and  for  the 
reasons  previously  described,  to  full  multiple,  continues 
in  multiple  until  he  has  attained  the  speed  his  experi- 
ence and  judgment  have  established  as  suitable  for  the 
probable  traffic  conditions  considered  in  relation  to  the 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


time-element  factors  controlling  his  ultimate  efficiency 
with  maintenance  of  schedule,  then  throws  off  power, 

nj-.nnA.nO'lC..  J    _  t__  t  .  ^  •! 


1751 


t\r 


motormen  in  congested  districts 

/*  -|     r»  «  •--•»  -v  •»  w     •  /•»»      I'*-7 "  **i  )  /» 

coasts  21.5  seconds,  brakes  at  2  miles  per  hour  per  sec-       °*   tne  general   nature   illustrated   in  Cycle   I 
£?£*£& t'hisTulblocVr™'  *" " "" <nd °f     3nd'  theref°re'  "»'  'he  m«°™an  rarely  ,.! 

Motorman  B  accelerates,  in  the  manner  and  for  the       temPts   multiple  operation   under  such   Condi- 
reasons   previously  described,  to  the  series  position,      tions.     The  need  is  apparent,  however    that 

tPhaa™  feSL  PSTJiajg'lS'Aa      under  .•»<*.  -"^  ^tion.  <,*«'«« 

based  on  the  wrong  principles  for  normal  operation  has       operation    is   the    practice   of  motormen)    the 

caused  so  much  delay  in  time  that  to  maintain  schedule       importance    of   the    time    element    should    be 

power  must  be  applied  (resulting  in  no  coasting)  until  A  ., 

the  application  of  the  braking  rate  of  2  miles  per  hour  imPressed  on  the  motormen  and  checked  for 

proper  results  under  such  congested  condi- 
tions, as  is  apparent  from  consideration  of  the 
relative  operations  of  Motormen  B  and  C  illus- 
trated in  Cycle  I,  Fig.  I-B  and  Table  I-B,  hereof. 


per 

per  second  to  make  the  7-second  stop  called  for  the  end 
of  the  fourth  block  of  this  four-block  run. 

Motorman  C  follows  his  previously  described  usual 
mode  of  accelerating  to  and  pausing  on  series  position, 
but,  knowing  that  his  efforts  to  keep  down  the  rush  of 
amperes  during  acceleration  sometimes  gets  him  behind 
the  schedule,  his  judgment  gives  him  a  "hunch"  and  he 
pauses  this  time  on  series  only  6.6  seconds  (for  the 
bell  that  came  not),  then  continues  into  multiple,  but 
he,  too,  is  a  victim  of  the  wrong  habit  of  operation  for 
efficiency  under  normal  operations,  and  using  2  miles  per 
hour  per  second  braking,  completes  this  four-block  run 
with  no  coasting,  in  order  to  maintain  the  schedule,  the 
duration  of  stop  is  7  seconds  as  before. 


Coasting  Correct  and  Simple  Check 

We  will  not  take  space  discussing  in  detail 
Mr.  Koehler's  comments  on  the  principles  dis- 
cussed and  applied  under  the  sub-sections, 
"Energy  Input  a  Misleading  Measure  of 
Efficiency"  and  "Coasting  a  Correct  Relative 
Measure  of  Actual  Efficiency,"  of  pages  35 
and  37,  Chapter  Two,  hereof.  We  leave  to  the 
reader  the  logic  and  correctness  of  the  prin- 


In Table  I-B,  column  headed  "Total  run 
composed  of  Cycles  I,  II  and  III,"  there  are 
tabulated  the  essential  factors  of  the  opera- 

tions  and  results  of  Motormen  A  B  and  C  for  ^  ^        Hcation  thereof  which  arc 

this  total  run  aggregating  0.4  mile  or  approxi-  ^.^  Jn  such  sub_sections>  Thc  logic  of  Mr. 
mately  10  per  cent  of  the  length  of  a  one-way  Koehler,s  reasoning  is  on  parity  with  that  in 
trip  of  a  typical  average  car  line  route  ^^  .^  mattef  for  whkh  Mr  Kochler's 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  even  for  this  is  responsibie;  Jn  one  installment  the 

short  run  the  ratio  of  the  increase  in  per  cent  term  «cannon_ball»  acceleration"  is  used  in  re- 
coasting  to  the  resulting  per  cent  saving  in  fe  to  ^  increase  of  tne  acceleration  rate 

>«r»t-  r\f  A  onH  R  nnerarions  pives  a  ratio  of  1  .__.• 


power  of  A  and  B  operations  gives  a  ratio 
to  0.51,  and  similarly  for  A  and  C  operations, 
the  ratio  of  1  to  0.59,  being  a  definite  illustra- 
tion of  the  definite  ratio  existing  between  in- 
crease in  per  cent  coasting  to  per  cent  saving  in 
power  that  the  fundamental  principles  estab- 
lish as  existing  in  connection  with  conditions      for 
encountered    in    practical    operation.      Such 


toward    the    maximum   within   the  limits 
equipment  and  comfort  of  passengers,  while  in 
the  next  installment  is  an  illustration  of  raf>it 
acceleration  on  a  1000-ft.  run  effecting  a  sav- 
of  27.3  per  cent  in  power. 

schedule  speeds  and  stops  per  mile, 
0  per  cent  resulting  coasting  was 
oiwT. the  widely  varying  ranges  of  kilo- 
ratios  are  somewhat  reduced  for  the  particular  wa"tt_hours  mput  at  the  car  enumerated,  closely 
'comparisons,  due  to  the  Cycle  I  run,  for  ximate  tne  actual  conditions  existing 
which  series  operation,  only,  is  advantageous.  ^^  Hne  of  a  weii^nown  railway  on  \ 

the  daily  services  of  some  sixty-four  differei 
Practical  Limitations  Control  motormen  are  required. 

the 


for 


,       ™«,  » 


'"" 


[76] 


INCREASING   CAR  OPERATION   ECONOMIES 


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Jan.  Feb.Mar.Apr  MayJune July Aug.Sept.Oct.  Nov.  Dec 

Figure  2-B  Figure  3-B 

Consumption  Data  Graphs  for  Annapolis   Short  Line  Energy  Consumption  Data  Graphs  for  Cleburne  Interurban  Line 


number  of  cars,  approximates  the  highest  sched- 
ule speed. 

The  classifying  and  subdividing  necessary 
to  equitably  compare  the  sixty-four  motormen 
on  such  line  may  be  the  simple  matter  that  Mr. 
Koehler  suggests,  but  we  submit  that  the  40  per 
cent  coasting  shown  as  being  the  measure 
of  their  efficiency  for  the  particular  conditions 
existing,  will  appeal  to  the  practical  operator. 

Operation  Results  Confirm 
Principles 

Fortunately,  practical  results  are  available 
from  recent  periodicals  confirming  the  correct- 
ness of  the  conclusions  established  from  the 
fundamental  principles  involved  in  car  opera- 
tion efficiency.  The  Feb.  26,  1916,  issue  of  the 
Electric  Railway  Journal  contains  an  admirable 
article  by  D.  E.  Grouse,  entitled  "Ampere- 
Hour  Meters  on  the  Annapolis  Short  Line." 
Without  any  desire  to  detract  from  the  value 
of  Mr.  Grouse's  article,  we  have  sub-divided 
his  first-year  comparative  results  from  the  use 
of  meters  into  two  periods,  i.e.,  the  first  six 
months'  use,  ended  June  30,  1915,  and  the 
second  six  months'  use,  ended  Dec.  31,  1915. 
Table  II-B  and  Fig.  2-B  show  the  comparative 
results  (based  on  a.c.  bus  measurement)  for 
the  respective  first  and  second  six-month 
periods  in  tabular  and  graphical  form. 

The  Stone  &  Webster  Public  Service  Journal, 
January,  1916,  issue,  contains  an  article  by 
R.  E.  Griffiths,  entitled  "The  Coasting  Time 
Recorder  and  Its  Operation."  From  the  data 
in  Mr.  Griffiths'  article  we  have  prepared 
Table  III-B  and  Fig.  3-B,  showing  the  compara- 


tive  results  (based  on  d.c.  bus  measurement) 
on  the  Cleburne  interurban  line  of  the  Tarrant 
County  Traction  Company  for  the  first  eigh- 
teen months'  operation  of  Rico  Coasting  Re- 
corders ended  Dec.  31,  1915,  the  eighteen- 
month  period  being  divided  into  first,  second 
and  third  six-month  periods  of  comparative 
operation. 

Tables  II-B  and  III-B  and  Figs.  2-B  and  3-B 
show  results  obtained  in  practical  operation 
under  somewhat  similar  conditions,  i-e-,  inter- 
urban service,  which  approaches  more  nearly 
uniform  conditions  for  schedule  speed,  number 
and  duration  of  stops,  etc.,  than  can  possibly 
exist  for  ordinary  street  railway  service. 

Table  II-B  and  Fig.  2-B  show  for  the 
Annapolis  Short  Line  a  saving  in  power  of 
16.4  per  cent  from  the  first  six  months'  use  of 
meters  compared  with  the  corresponding  period 
of  the  previous  year.  The  average  number  of 
stops  per  mile  was  0.04  greater  for  the  meter 
period.  Mr.  Grouse  states  in  his  article  that 
the  work  done  is  indicated  by  the  relative 
relation  of  the  average  number  of  stops  per 
mile.  Similarly,  Table  II-B  and  Fig.  2-B  show 
a  saving  in  power  of  only  4.7  per  cent  for  the 
second  six  months'  use  of  the  meters,  although 
the  comparative  average  number  of  stops  per 
mile  increased  only  0.01  stop  per  mile. 

Table  III-B  and  Fig.  3-B  show  for  the  Cle- 
burne interurban  line  a  saving  in  power  of 
19.6  per  cent,  with  average  of  24.2  per  cent 
coasting  for  the  first  six  months'  use  of  coast- 
ing recorders,  compared  with  the  corresponding 
period  of  the  previous  year.  Similarly  (see 
Table  III-B  and  Fig.  3-B),  there  was  a  saving 


INCREASING  CAR  OPERATION  ECONOMIES 


f77] 


tive 

the  third  six  months'  use,  which  covers  com- 
parative periods  with  the  coasting  recorders 
in  use,  shows  saving  in  power  for  the  compara- 
tive periods  of  2.8  per  cent,  with  an  increase 
in  coasting  from  24.2  per  cent  to  28.1  per  cent. 

The  interesting  feature  of  the  cited  data  is 
that  the  saving  in  power  on  the  Annapolis 
Short  Line  from  the  use  of  meters  dropped  from 
16.4  per  cent  average  saving  for  the  first  six 
months  to  only  4.7  per  cent  average  saving  for 
the  second  six  months'  use  of  the  meters, 
although  the  comparative  traffic  conditions 
were  easier,  based  on  the  comparative  increase 
in  the  average  stops  for  the  latter  period. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  savings  in  power  on 
the  Cleburne  interurban  line  for  the  first  six 
months'  use  of  recorders  was  19.6  per  cent, 
for  the  second  six  months  18.7  per  cent,  and 
for  the  third  six  months  2.8  per  cent  increase, 
compared  with  the  results  of  the  first  six 
months'  use,  notwithstanding  the  gross  earn- 
ings per  car-mile  (another  accurate  measure  of 
work  done),  we  are  advised,  showed  more  than 
6  per  cent  increase. 

Mr.  Grouse's  account  of  the  method  of  oper- 
ating the  meters  indicates  high-grade  care  and 
attention  to  secure  best  results,  particular 
attention  being  given  to  providing,  as  far  as 


ly,  that  the  measurement  of  power  input 
only  is  a  misleading  and  ineffective  measure 
of  efficiency,  that  records  of  such  measurement 
mean  nothing  unless  analyzed  in  reference  to 
the  component  time-element  factors,  and  that, 
analyzed  or  unanalyzed,  such  measurement 
records  lead  ultimately  to  the  bewilderment  and 
discouragement  of  the  motorman,  the  human 
factor  through  which  results  are  obtained. 

The  Annapolis  Short  Line  secured  for  its 
second  six  months'  comparative  use  of  the 
meters,  approximately  the  results  ultimately 
obtained  by  such  more  or  less  indirect  methods 
for  checking  the  efficiency  of  the  motormen. 
It  would  have  been  interesting  to  see  the  re- 
sults had  the  Annapolis  Short  Line  approached 
the  efficiency  problem  with  the  Rico  Coasting 
Recorder.  The  fundamental  principles  indi- 
cate that  their  attainable  efficiency,  showing 
16.4  per  cent  saving  in  power,  would  have  been 
maintained,  and  this  is  confirmed  by  the  re- 
sults on  the  Cleburne  interurban  line. 

Table  III-B 

COMPARATIVE  ENERGY  PER  CAR-MILS  AND  Pss  CSJCT  COASTI NO,  rps 
CLEBURNB  INTERURBAN  LINE,  FOE  Six  MONTHS  ENDED  Dse  81. 1914. 


Table  II-B 

COMPARATIVE  ENERGY  PER  CAR-MILE  AND  AVERAGE  STOPS  PER 
FOR  ANNAPOLIS  SHORT  LINE,  FOR  Six  MONTHS  ENDED  JUNE  30 
JUNES    30.    1914  ;    ALSO,   FOR    Six    MONTHS   ENDED   DEC.    31, 
AND  DEC.  31,  1914 
First  Six  Months  Using  Meters  Ended  June  30,  1915 

MILE 
1915, 
1915. 

M 

1 

| 

3 

M 

JJ 

a 

B 

£5 

fl 

put 

C<H 

i* 

4)tH 

d  >>  i  « 
w.ag  Jj 

If 

& 

*  h 

£~ 

€)  G)  fe 

* 

«l 

wl 

c  fe<i  «> 
0^ 

«  i  <DU» 

tCQrH 

aao> 

**  Q.fH 

ass 

|£S 

25f3 

®£s 

it  BB 

si 

Wo 

».fcg>2 

&a£z 

£on 

«ss 

Sot, 

«££ 

c  >  O 

£«S 

January   .... 
February      .  . 
March     

4.2 
3.6 
3.5 
3.5 
3.7 
4.1 

4.6 
4.7 
4.5 
4.5 
4.4 
4.3 

ZZ'A 

22.2 
22.2 
15.9 
4.6 

0.37 
0.37 
0.38 
0.40 
0.38 
0.38 

0.34 
0.32 
0.32 
0.35 
0.37 
0.38 

0.03 
0.05 
0.06 
0.05 
0.01 
0.00 

Average 

3.76            4.50 

\6A 

0.38 

0.34 

0.04 

Second 
July 

Six 
4.0 
4.0 
4.0 
3.9 

Months  Using  Meters 
4.1              2.4 
4.0              0.0 
4.1               2.4 
4.2              7.1 

Ended 
0.37 
0.37 
0.38 
0.40 
0  40 

Dec.  31,  1915 
0.37 
0.35 
0.37 
0.37 
0.37 

0.00 
0.02 
0.01 
0.0} 
O.OS 

August    .  .  . 
September 
October    .  . 

N  ovember 

3.9 

4.3 

i  n 

o!ss 

0.38 

0.00 

December 

4.0 

4.3 

1    .  V 



AND  DEC.  31,  1913 ;  ALBO  FOR  Six  MONTHS  ENDED  JONS  JO.  ItlS. 
AND  JUNE  30,  1914,  AND  roe  Six  MONTHS  ENDED  DSC.  81.  1914. 

AND  DEC.  81,  1914 
First  Six  Months  Using  Coasting  Recorders  Snded  D*e.  81.  1914 

Per  Cent 

Kw.-Hr.     Kw.-Hr.      Saying    Aveng* 
per  per         In  Power  Per  Cent 

Car-Mile.    Car-Mile,  by  Use  of  Coasting. 


1914  1918 

July    2.50  8.11 

August    2.49 

September 2.30 

October 2.40 

November 2.38 

December 2.66 

Average 2.45  8.05 


Hasfsssi 

19.6 
14.4 
17.4 
24.7 
19.1 
18.2 

19.6 


1914 
22.7 
17.8 
25.7 
tfj 
26.8 
260 


2SP°- 


'.1914 


Second  Six  Months  Using  Coasting  **eor*«r*  •***  /•«•  »•.»«* 

1915  1914 

®sx,-n  iss 

ir.:;:::::!!!         in         ST 


June    I'. .2.19 

Average    ..  .  .2.39 


•••«• 


2.94 


18.7 


88.1 


1915 


wj _ 

October    2-3 

November    . ...B.n 
December 


1914 


2.40 

:  3« 
266 


Average    ...-2.38t 


'.*• 

a!o 


1915 
29.8 
28.7 
29.0 
276 
26.9 
26.1 


1914 

:JT 

171 
2S.7 
2S.S 
26.8 
240 


•Increase. 


88.1  242 

corresponding 


Average 


3.96 


4.16 


4.7 


0.38 


6.37 


0.01 


f.  i 


Finale 


^HE  foregoing  discussions  demonstrate  that 

there  is  no  reason  to  assume  the  efficiency 

-*•     of   a   car's  operations   is  something   that 

cannot  be  accurately  measured  and  automatically 

recorded. 

Since  the  importance  of  efficiency  in  car  oper- 
ation is  disputed  by  none,  the  means  for  accurately 
measuring  and  recording  the  degree  of  that  effi- 
ciency should  be  conscientiously  studied  by  every 
electric  railway  executive  and  operating  staff, 
to  the  end  of  achieving  and  retaining  the  highest 
efficiency  attainable  for  the  conditions  of  equip- 
ment and  traffic. 

The  most  effective  means  to  secure  that  end 
are  the  RICO  Coasting  Recorder  and  the  RICO 
C  &  S  Recorder  equipments  developed  by  this 
company,  as  daily  demonstrated  under  the  widest 
conceivable  ranges  of  electric  railway  operation. 

Railway  Improvement  Company 

61  Broadway,  New  York 


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